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Victory: The Communist Revolution in Manchuria, 1945-1948 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), also joined the issue by looking at revolutionary mobilization in a strategically pivotal and internationally sensitive region. It elaborates themes anticipated in his "A New Look at American Mediation in the Chinese Civil War: The Marshall Mission and Manchuria," Diplomatic History 3 (Fall 1979), 349-75, and his essay, “Soviet-American Rivalry in Manchuria and the Cold War," in Dimensions of Chinese Foreign Policy, ed. Chün-tu Hsüeh (New York: Praeger, 1977), 10-43.

Other early accounts grappling with CCP foreign policy ideology include Okabe Tatsumi, "The Cold War and China," in The Origins of the Cold War in Asia, ed. Yonosuke Nagai and Akira Iriye (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), 224-51; and Warren I. Cohen, "The Development of Chinese Communist Policy toward the United States," Orbis 11 (Spring and Summer 1967), 219-37 and 551-69.

A growing body of scholarship helps situate CCP external relations in the broader context of base building, revolutionary warfare, peasant mobilization, and united front policy in the 1930s and 1940s. Key items include Odoric Y. K. Wou, Mobilizing the Masses: Building Revolution in Henan (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994); Gregor Benton, Mountain Fires: The Red Army's Three-Year War in South China, 1934-1938 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Kui-Kwong Shum, The Chinese Communists' Road to Power: The Anti-Japanese National United Front, 19351945 (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1988); Levine, Anvil of Victory (cited above); Chen Yung-fa, Making Revolution: The Communist Movement in Eastern and Central China, 1937-1945 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986); and Suzanne Pepper, Civil War in China: The Political Struggle, 1945-1949 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978). Some of the issues raised by this literature are discussed in Kathleen J. Hartford and Steven M. Goldstein, "Perspectives on the Chinese Communist Revolution," in Single Sparks: China's Rural Revolutions, ed. Goldstein and Hartford (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1989), 3-33.

PRC historians have led the way in filling out the picture of CCP policy from the late 1930s down to 1949. The most ambi

tious account to date is Niu Jun's Cong Yanan zouxiang shijie: Zhongguo gongchandang duiwai guanxi de qiyuan [Moving from Yanan toward the world: the origins of Chinese Communist foreign relations] (Fuzhou: Fujian renmin, 1992). Niu locates the origins of the CCP's independent foreign policy in the Yanan years, and perhaps better than any other account-in English or Chinese-provides the supporting evidence. He builds here on his earlier work evidence. He builds here on his earlier work on the CCP's handling of the Hurley and Marshall missions, Cong He'erli dao Maxie'er: Meiguo tiaochu guogong maodun shimo [From Hurley to Marshall: a full account of the U.S. mediation of the contradictions between the Nationalists and the Communists] (Fuzhou: Fujian renmin, 1988).

Chinese specialists have published extensively in Chinese journals on various key aspects of CCP policy in this period. A portion of that work has appeared in translation. See especially Zhang Baijia, “Chinese Policies toward the United States, 19371945," and He Di, "The Evolution of the Chinese Communist Party's Policy toward the United States, 1944-1949," in SinoAmerican Relations, 1945-1955, 14-28 and 31-50 respectively; and Yang Kuisong, "The Soviet Factor and the CCP's Policy Toward the United States in the 1940s," Chinese Historians 5 (Spring 1992), 17-34.

Key sources for this period, aside from the central party documents mentioned above, are Zhongyang tongzhanbu and Zhongyang dang'anguan, comps., Zhonggong zhongyang kangRi minzu tongyi zhanxian wenjian xuanbian [A selection of documents on the CCP Central Committee's national anti-Japanese united front] (3 vols.; Beijing: Dang'an, 1984-86; “internal circulation"); and Zhongyang tongzhanbu and Zhongyang

dang'anguan, comps., Zhonggong zhongyang jiefang zhanzheng shiqi tongyi zhanxian wenjian xuanbian [A selection of documents on the CCP Central Committee's united front during the period of liberation struggle] (Beijing: Dang'an, 1988; "internal circulation”).

Personal accounts are useful in supplementing the primary collections. See Shi Zhe with Li Haiwen, Zai lishi juren shenbian: Shi Zhe huiyilu [Alongside the giants of history: Shi Zhe's memoir] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1991); Nie Rongzhen, Nie Rongzhen huiyilu [The memoirs of Nie Rongzhen] (3 vols.; Beijing: Janshi, 1983,

and Jiefangjun, 1984): Wu Xiuquan, Wode licheng [My course] (Beijing: Jiefangjun, 1984); Peter Vladimirov, The Vladimirov Diary, Yenan, China: 1942-1945 (Garden City, N.Y., 1975), a translation that is not as complete as the Russian original, and in any case betrays a tendentious quality that invites some suspicion; and Ivan V. Kovalev and Sergei N. Goncharov, "Stalin's Dialogue with Mao Zedong," trans. Craig Seibert, Journal of Northeast Asian Studies 10 (Winter 1991-92), 45-76. Chen Jian has translated the portions of the Shi Zhe memoir dealing with the 1949 missions by Mikoyan and Liu Shaoqi in Chinese Historians 5 (Spring 1992), 35-46; and 6 (Spring 1993), 67-90.

Mao Zedong

Anyone interested in tracing Mao's evolving outlook on international affairs and his central policy role from the mid-1930s has an embarrassment of documentary riches to contend with. Indeed, a wide variety of materials have accumulated layer upon layer so that systematic research requires considerable patience. Those who press on will find as their reward Mao emerging from these materials a more complex and more interesting figure than previously guessed.

Most notable among the English-language treatments of Mao's career is the body of writing by Stuart R. Schram. See in particular Schram's classic life-and-times biography, Mao Tse-tung (Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin, 1966); the update to it in Mao Zedong: A Preliminary Reassessment (New York and Hong Kong: St. Martin's Press and Chinese University Press, 1983); and finally his The Thought of Mao Tse-tung (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1989), consisting of two essays that first appeared in The Cambridge History of China, vols. 13 and 15. See also Frederick C. Teiwes, "Mao and His Lieutenants," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 19-20 (January-July 1988), 1-80; Jerome Ch'en, Mao and the Chinese Revolution (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); Frederic Wakeman, Jr., History and Will: Philosophical Perspectives of Mao Tse-tung's Thought (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973); Dick Wilson, ed., Mao Tse-tung in the Scales of History (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); Robert A. Scalapino, "The Evolution of a Young

Revolutionary-Mao Zedong in 19191921," Journal of Asian Studies 42 (November 1982), 29-61; He Di, "The Most Respected Enemy: Mao Zedong's Perception of the United States," China Quarterly 137 (March 1994), 144-58; and Benjamin I. Schwartz, "The Maoist Image of the World Order," Journal of International Affairs 21 (1967), 92-102. The Schwartz article is notable as a pioneering effort to inject more sophistication and subtlety into the study of Mao's guiding ideas by placing earlier foreign relations practices and experience as well as twentieth-century nationalism alongside Marxist-Leninist sources.

There is a good body of writings on Mao's early years. The starting point has long been Mao's own recital in Edgar Snow's Red Star Over China (originally published 1938; New York: Grove Press, 1961). The first to add to the picture was Xiao San (Emi Hsiao), Mao Zedong tongzhi de qingshaonian shidai [Comrade Mao Zedong's boyhood and youth] (originally published 1948; rev. and exp. ed., Guangzhou: Xinhua, 1950). A translation is available as Mao Tse-tung: His Childhood and Youth (Bombay: People's Publishing House, 1953). Li Rui followed with Mao Zedong tongzhi de chuqi geming huodong [Comrade Mao Zedong's initial revolutionary activities] (Beijing: Zhongguo qingnian, 1957). The translation prepared by Anthony W. Sariti and James C. Hsiung appears as The Early Revolutionary Activities of Mao Tse-tung (White Plains, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1977). Li Rui has since offered a revised and expanded version of the biography: Mao Zedong de zaoqi geming huodong [Mao Zedong's early revolutionary activity] (Changsha: Hunan renmin, 1980). The recollections by Siao Yu (Xiao Yü; Xiao Zisheng), Mao Tse-tung and I Were Beggars (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1959), sound a somewhat sour tone. Recently a full collection of early writings has been published in China: Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi and Zhonggong Hunan shengwei "Mao Zedong zaoqi wengao" bianjizu, comps., Mao Zedong zaoqi wengao, 1912.6-1920.11 [Mao Zedong manuscripts from the early period, June 1912-November 1920] (Changsha: Hunan, 1990; “internal circulation"). M. Henri Day offers translations of some early writings in Mao Zedong, 19171927: Documents (Stockholm: publisher not

indicated, 1975).

The officially sanctioned and most frequently cited collection of Mao's writings, quently cited collection of Mao's writings, post- as well as pre-1949, is Mao Zedong xuanji [Selected works of Mao Zedong] (5 vols.; Beijing: Renmin, 1952-77). It has long been available in translation: Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung (5 vols.; Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1961-77).

Aware that Selected Works is highly selective and politically edited, scholars outside China have subjected the Mao corpus to critical analysis, sought to supplement it with fresh materials, and prepared translations based on the most authentic originals available. The effort began in earnest with Stuart Schram's 1963 compilation and translation of key documents, The Political Thought of Mao Tse-tung (rev. ed.; Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin, 1969). The major nonofficial collection, launched in Japan under the supervision of Takeuchi Minoru, provided a reliable and considerably fuller body of Mao materials at least down to 1949. The first series appeared as Mao Zedong ji [Collected writings of Mao Zedong] (10 vols.; Tokyo: Hokubosha, 1971-72); it was followed by a second, supplementary series, Mao Zedong ji bujuan [Supplements to the collected writings of Mao Zedong] (9 vols.; Tokyo: Sososha, 1983-85). A parallel project to provide a full English-language collection, Mao's Road to Power: Revolutionary Writings, 1912-1949, is now underway. The PreMarxist Period, 1912-1920, ed. Stuart R. Schram (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1992), is the first volume to appear.

Collections compiled by the party history establishment in China over the last decade have added significant, fresh light on Mao's general outlook and his emergence as a maker of foreign policy. These collections include Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, comp., Mao Zedong shuxin xuanji [A selection of Mao Zedong correspondence] (Beijing: Renmin, 1983); Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi and Xinhua tongxunshe, comps., Mao Zedong xinwen gongzuo wenxuan [A selection of Mao Zedong works on journalism] (Beijing: Xinhua, 1983); and Zhonggong zhongyang tongyi zhanxian gongzuobu yanjiushi et al., comps., Mao Zedong lun tongyi zhanxian [Mao Zedong on the united front] (Beijing: Zhongguo wenshi, 1988).

The hundredth anniversary of Mao's birth gave rise to new compilations. One was

a new series on Mao the military strategist: Junshi kexue chubanshe and Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, comps., Mao Zedong junshi wenji [A collection of Mao Zedong works on military affairs] (6 vols.; Beijing: publisher same as compiler, 1993), which expands on Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun junshi kexueyuan, comp., Mao Zedong junshi wenxuan [A selection of Mao Zedong works on military affairs] (Beijing: Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhanshi, 1981; "internal circulation"; Tokyo reprint: Sososha, 1985). A second is the detailed and authoritative account of Mao's emergence and triumph as a revolutionary leader in Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (under the direction of Pang Xianzhi), Mao Zedong nianpu, 1893-1949 [A chronological biography of Mao Zedong, 1893-1949] (3 vols.; Beijing: Renmin and Zhongyang wenxian, 1993). A third is Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, comp., Mao Zedong wenji [Collected works of Mao Zedong] (2 vols. to date; Beijing: Renmin, 1983-), which stands as a supplement to the well known xuanji (selected works) but which is largely silent on international issues. A fourth anniversary collection on Mao's diplomacy has also appeared: Mao Zedong waijiao wenxuan [Selected Diplomatic Papers of Mao Zedong] (Beijing: The Central Press of Historical Documents, 1994). Helpful in putting Mao's role in the revolution in context are collections of central party documents and the documents on overall united front policy from 1935-1948 (both cited above).

For the post-1949 Mao turn to the classified series compiled by Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao [Mao Zedong manuscripts for the period following the establishment of the country] (8 vols. to date; Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1987-; “internal circulation"). This series sheds new light on Mao and world affairs down to the late 1950s, and taken together with the outpouring of Mao material during the Cultural Revolution, gives us the basis for beginning to understand Mao's PRC years. The formidable task of collecting, collating, and verifying these materials has only begun. For a good recent guide, see Timothy Cheek, “Textually Speaking: An Assessment of Newly Available Mao Texts," in The Secret Speeches of Chairman Mao: From the Hundred Flowers to the Great Leap Forward, ed. Roderick MacFarquhar et al. (Cambridge:

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Harvard Council on East Asian Studies, 1989), 78-81; and Cheek, "The 'Genius' Mao: A Treasure Trove of 23 Newly Available Volumes of Post-1949 Mao Zedong Texts," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 19-20 (January-July 1988), 337-44.

To make the post-1949 Mao materials available in English, Michael Y. M. Kau and John K. Leung launched a translation series in 1986. Two volumes of their The Writings of Mao Zedong, 1949-1976 (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1986- ) have appeared to date covering the period down to December 1957. Their formidable task has been complicated by the continuing flow of new materials out of China. Translated fragments are available elsewhere—in a variety of publications by U.S. Joint Publications Research Service (better known as JPRS); in Stuart Schram, Chairman Mao Talks to the People: Talks and Letters, 1956-1971 (New York: Pantheon, 1975); and in MacFarquhar et al., The Secret Speeches (cited above).

Zhou Enlai

Zhou deserves special attention as Mao's chief lieutenant in foreign affairs. For the moment the place to start is the archivally based biography, Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (under the direction of Jin Chongji), Zhou Enlai zhuan, 1898-1949 [Biography of Zhou Enlai, 1898-1949] (Beijing: Renmin and Zhongyang wenxian, 1989). This biography should be used in conjunction with Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, comp., Zhou Enlai nianpu, 1898-1949 [A chronicle of Zhou Enlai's life, 1898-1949] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian and Renmin, 1989). Zhou's early years abroad are richly documented in Huai En, comp., Zhou zongli qingshaonian shidai shiwenshuxinji [A collection of writings from Premier Zhou's youth] (2 vols., Chengdu: Sichuan renmin, 1979-80); and Zhongguo geming bowuguan, comp. Zhou Enlai tongzhi lüOu wenji xubian [A supplement to the collected works from the time of comrade Zhou Enlai's residence in Europe] (Beijing: Wenwu, 1982). These materials largely supercede the treatment in Kai-yu Hsu, Chou En-lai: China's Grey Eminence (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), and Dick Wilson, Zhou Enlai: A Biography (New York: Viking, 1984).

Helpful documentation on Zhou's policy role can be found in Zhonggong zhongyang

wenxian yanjiushi, comp., Zhou Enlai shuxin xuanji [A selection of Zhou Enlai letters] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1988); Zhonggong zhongyang tongyi zhanxian gongzuobu and Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, comps., Zhou Enlai tongyi zhanxian wenxuan [A selection of Zhou Enlai writings on the united front] (Beijing: Renmin, 1984); and Zhonghua renmin gongheguo waijiaobu and Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, comps., Zhou Enlai waijiao wenxuan [Selected diplomatic writings of Zhou Enlai] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1990). These materials go well beyond the limited documentation in Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian bianji weiyuanhui, comp., Zhou Enlai xuanji [Selected works of Zhou Enlai] (2 vols.; Beijing: Renmin, 1980, 1984), which is available in translation as Selected Works of Zhou Enlai (2 vols.; Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1981-89).

For an introduction to recent work in China on Zhou's diplomatic career and thinking, see Zhou Enlai yanjiu xueshu taolunhui lunwenji [Collected academic conference research papers on Zhou Enlai] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1988); Zhonghua renmin gongheguo waijiaobu waijiaoshi bianjishi (under the direction of Pei Jianzhang), ed., Yanjiu Zhou Enlai-waijiao sixiang yu shiyan [Studying Zhou Enlaidiplomatic thought and practice] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi, 1989); Zhongguo geming bowuguan et al., comps., Zhou Enlai he tade shiye: yanjiu xuancui [Zhou Enlai and his enterprises: a sampling of studies] (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi, 1991); and Zhonghua renmin gongheguo waijiaobu waijiaoshi yanjiushi, comp., Zhou Enlai waijiao huodong dashiji, 1949-1975 [A record of Zhou Enlai's diplomatic activities, 19491975] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi, 1993).

The Foreign Policy of the PRC

The new sources and studies that have refashioned our understanding of early CCP attitudes and policies are just beginning to have an impact on the post-1949 period. Until more documentary publications appear and are digested, it is likely that our understanding of PRC foreign policy will remain thin and fragmentary, and the writings in English on the topic will for the most part hold to the well-established political science approaches.

There are several good overviews that must serve for the moment. The Cambridge History of China, vols. 14 and 15, covers PRC foreign policy in chapters by Nakajima Mineo, Allen S. Whiting, Thomas Robinson, and Jonathan D. Pollack, while also offering helpful source essays. Samuel S. Kim, ed., China and the World: Chinese Foreign Relations in the Post-Cold War Era (3rd rev. ed.; Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994), pulls together a good range of up-to-date accounts. John W. Garver, Foreign Relations of the People's Republic of China (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1993), provides a thematic treatment with some attention to the pre-1949 background. Among older surveys Wang Gungwu's terse China and the World Since 1949: The Impact of Independence, Modernity, and Revolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1977), still deserves attention for its commendable stress on setting CCP foreign relations in a broad domestic context.

The PRC's exercise of control over border regions is still only poorly understood. For the moment the best places to start are Dreyer, China's Forty Millions (cited above); A. Tom Grunfeld, The Making of Modern Tibet (London: Zed, and Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1987), chaps. 5-11; and Donald H. McMillen, Chinese Communist Power and Policy in Xinjiang, 1949-1977 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1979).

The general secondary accounts in Chinese on post-1949 policy increasingly reflect the new openness in the PRC but still stick close to the official line. Han Nianlong, chief comp., Dangdai Zhongguo waijiao [Chinese foreign affairs in recent times] (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan, 1987) is the best known of these. That volume has been translated as Diplomacy of Contemporary China (Hong Kong: New Horizon, 1990) by Qiu Ke'an. It appears as a part of the series "Dangdai Zhongguo" (Contemporary China), which includes studies on the armed forces also germane to foreign policy. Zhongguo waijiaoshi: Zhonghua renmin gongheguo shiqi, 1949-1979 [A diplomatic history of China: The PRC period, 19491979] (Zhengzhou: Henan renmin, 1988) is a major survey produced by Xie Yixian, who served in the foreign service before taking up teaching duties in the Foreign Ministry's Foreign Affairs College.

These accounts should be supplemented by such memoirs as Bo Yibo, Ruogan

zhongda juece yu shijian de huigu [Reflections on some major decisions and incidents] (2 vols.; Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao, 1991-93); Li Shengzhi, YaFei huiyi riji [A diary of the Asian-African conference] (Beijing: publisher not indicated, 1986); Liu Xiao, Chushi Sulian banian [Eight years as ambassador to the Soviet Union] (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi ziliao, 1986); Wang Bingnan, ZhongMei huitan jiunian huigu [Looking back on nine years of Sino-American talks] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi, 1985); and Wu Xiuquan, Zai waijiaobu banian de jingli, 1950.1-1958.10 [Eight years' experience in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, January 1950-October 1958] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi, 1983). This last item, the second volume of the Wu memoirs, is translated as Eight Years in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, January 1950-October 1958: Memoirs of a Diplomat (Beijing: New World Press, 1985).

Documentary collections are beginning to open the window on PRC foreign relations. See in particular Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao (cited above); the tightly held collection compiled by Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi xueyuan dangshi jiaoyanshi (renamed Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue dangshi dangjian zhenggong jiaoyanshi), Zhonggong dangshi jiaoxue cankao ziliao [Reference materials for the teaching of CCP history] (vols. to date numbered 12-27 with 25-27 withdrawn; n.p. [Beijing?], n.d. [preface in vol. 12 dated 1985]); Xinhuashe xinwen yanjiubu, comp., Xinhuashe wenjian ziliao xuanbian [A selection of documentary materials on the New China News Agency] (4 vols.; no place and no publisher, [1981-87?]); and Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun dangshi dangjian zhenggong jiaoyanshi and Guofang daxue dangshi dangjian zhenggong jiaoyanshi, comps., "Wenhua dageming" yanjiu ziliao [Research materials on "the Cultural Revolution"] (3 vols.; Beijing: publisher same as compiler, 1988; withdrawn from circulation). The second series of ZhongMei guanxi ziliao huibian [A collection of materials on Sino-American relations], comp. Shijie zhishi (2 vols.; Beijing: Shijie zhishi, 1960; "internal circulation"), reads like a "white paper" with a strong emphasis on materials between 1949 and 1958, virtually all from the public domain. Two new collections are helpful in putting early PRC foreign relations in a broad policy

framework: Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, comp., Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1992-); and Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi and Zhongyang dang'anguan "Dangde wenxian" bianjibu, comps., Gongheguo zouguodelu: jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian zhuanti xuanji (19491952) [The path travelled by the republic: a selection of important documents on special topics since the founding of the country (1949-1952)] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1991).

For the Korean War, Allen S. Whiting's China Crosses the Yalu: The Decision to Enter the Korean War (originally published 1960; Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968) was a path-breaking work that long stood as the single, indispensable work. His account of Chinese signalling from June to November 1950 depicted Beijing as neither Moscow-dominated nor irrational but acting essentially out of fear of "a determined, powerful enemy on China's doorstep" (159). A decade later Edward Friedman, "Problems in Dealing with an Irrational Power," in America's Asia: Dissenting Essays on AsianAmerican Relations, ed. Friedman and Mark Selden (New York: Pantheon, 1971), followed Whiting in stressing the defensive, calculated, and rational nature of Chinese policy and Beijing's "complex and differentiated view of American foreign policy" (212). The theme that China was essentially responding in Korea to a danger to its security sponding in Korea to a danger to its security again enjoyed prominence in Melvin Gurtov and Byong-Moo Hwang, China under Threat: The Politics of Strategy and Diplomacy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1980), chap. 2., although by this point other competing concerns-domestic issues, divisions within the leadership, and strong internationalist elements in Beijing's justification for intervention—were beginning to creep into the picture and blur the interpretation.

The last few years have witnessed a flurry of publications, one after another broadening and enriching our understanding of Chinese policy and China's place in an international history of the early Cold War (while unfortunately neglecting the domestic dimensions of that conflict). Chen Xiaolu, "China's Policy Toward the United States, 1949-1955," and Jonathan D. Pollack, “The Korean War and Sino-American Relations," both in Sino-American Relations, 1945-1955, 184-97 and 213-37, were soon followed by

Mark A. Ryan, Chinese Attitudes Toward Nuclear Weapons: China and the United States During the Korean War (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1989); Hao Yufan and Zhai Zhihai, “China's Decision to Enter the Korean War: History Revisited," China Quarterly 121 (March 1990), 94-115, which were in turn overtaken by Chen Jian, “The Sino-Soviet Alliance and China's Entry into the Korean War" (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Cold War International History Project, 1992); Chen Jian, "China's Changing Aims during the Korean War, 1950-1951," The Journal of American-East Asian Relations 1 (Spring 1992), 8-41; Thomas J. Christensen, "Threats, Assurances, and the Last Chance for Peace: The Lessons of Mao's Korean War Telegrams," International Security 17 (Summer 1992), 122-54; and Michael H. Hunt, "Beijing and the Korean Crisis, June 1950June 1951," Political Science Quarterly 107 (Fall 1992), 453-78.

Treatment of Sino-Soviet relations during the initial phase of the Korean War was for a time sharply limited by the lack of documentation. Robert R. Simmons, The Strained Alliance: Peking, Pyongyang, Moscow and the Politics of the Korean War (New York: Free Press, 1975); Wilbur A. Chaffee, "Two Hypotheses of Sino-Soviet Relations as Concerns the Instigation of the Korean War," Journal of Korean Affairs 6:3-4 (1976-77), 1-13; and Nakajima Mineo, "The Sino-Soviet Confrontation: Its Roots in the International Background of the Korean War," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 1 (January 1979), 19-47, were early efforts to explore that topic and especially the ways the war may have intensified strains that would eventually bring about the SinoSoviet split. Drawing on new materials, Kathryn Weathersby treats "The Soviet Role in the Early Phase of the Korean War: New Documentary Evidence,” Journal of American-East Asian Relations 2 (Winter 1993), 425-58, and also presents Soviet archival materials on the war in issues 3, 5, and 6 of the Cold War International History Project Bulletin.

The most detailed and up-to-date accounts of the war's origins are to be found in Chen Jian, China's Road to the Korean War: The Making of the Sino-American Confrontation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), notable for its stress on the strong revolutionary streak in Mao's foreign

policy, and Sergei N. Goncharov, John W. Lewis, and Xue Litai, Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao, and the Korean War (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993), which depicts the two leaders as shrewd nationalists and resolute realpolitikers engaged in an intricate game of international chess with ideology counting for little.

Within the Chinese historical establishment, Yao Xu, Cong Yalujiang dao Banmendian: Weida de kangMei yuan Chao zhanzheng [From the Yalu River to Panmunjom: the great war to resist America and aid Korea] (Beijing: Renmin, 1985; "internal circulation"); and Chai Chengwen and Zhao Yongtian, KangMei yuan Chao jishi [A record of resisting America and aiding Korea] (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi ziliao, 1987; "internal circulation"), were the first to deal in detail with the war. Their work was in turn improved on by Junshi jiaoxueyuan junshi lishi yanjiubu, comp., Zhongguo renmin zhiyuanjun kangMei yuan Chao zhanshi [A battle history of resistance to America and aid to Korea by the Chinese people's volunteer army] (Beijing: Junshi jiaoxue, 1988; "internal circulation"); Chai Chengwen and Zhao Yongtian, Banmendian tanpan: Chaoxian zhanzheng juan [The Panmunjom talks: a volume on the Korean War] (Beijing: Jiefangjun, 1989); Ye Yumeng, Chubing Chaoxian: kangMei yuan Chao lishi jishi [Sending troops to Korea: a historical record of the resistance to American and assistance to Korea] (Beijing: Beijing shiyue wenyi, 1990); Qi Dexue, Chaoxian zhanzheng juece neimu [The inside story of the Korean War decisions] (Shenyang: Liaoning daxue, 1991); "Dangdai Zhongguo" congshu bianji weiyuanhui, Kang Mei yuanChao zhanzheng [The war to resist America and aid Korea] (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue, 1990); and Xu Yan, Diyici jiaoliang: kangMei yuanChao zhanzheng de lishi huigu yu fansi [The first test of strength: a historical review and evaluation of the war to resist America and aid Korea] (Beijing: Zhongguo guangbo dianshi, 1990), the most complete and fully researched of the Chinese studies. Zhang Xi's unusually revealing "Peng Dehuai shouming shuaishi kangMei yuanChao de qianqian houhou" [The full story of Peng Dehuai's appointment to head the resistance to the United States and the assistance to Korea], Zhonggong dangshi ziliao 31 (1989), 111-59, is available in a translation by Chen

Jian, "Peng Dehuai and China's Entry into the Korean War," Chinese Historians 6 (Spring 1993), 1-29.

The Chinese military has made a major effort to tell its Korean War story not only in some of the general accounts noted above but also in a long string of memoirs. They include Peng Dehuai zishu bianjizu, ed., Peng Dehuai zishu [Peng Dehuai's own account] (Beijing: Renmin, 1981), which contains treatment of Korea prepared before the Cultural Revolution and apparently without access to personal files; Du Ping, Zai zhiyuanjun zongbu [With the headquarters of the volunteer army] (Beijing: Jiefangjun, 1989); Yang Chengwu, Yang Chengwu huiyilu [Memoirs of Yang Chengwu] (2 vols.; Beijing: Jiefangjun, 1987 and 1990); Yang Dezhi, Weile heping [For the sake of peace] (Beijing: Changzheng, 1987); and Hong Xuezhi, Kang Mei yuan Chao zhanzheng huiyi ["Recollections of the war to resist U.S. aggression and aid Korea"] (Beijing: Jiefangjun wenyi, 1990). Peng's memoir is translated as Memoirs of a Chinese Marshal: The Autobiographical Notes of Peng Dehuai (1898-1924), trans. Zheng Longpu and ed. Sara Grimes (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1984).

There are abundant published source materials on the Korean conflict. Aside from Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao and Mao Zedong junshi wenxuan (both noted above), see Peng Dehuai zhuanji bianxiezu, comp., Peng Dehuai junshi wenxuan [A selection of Peng Dehuai writings on military affairs] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1988); and Zhongguo renmin kangMei yuanChao zonghui xuanchuanbu, comp., Weida de kang Mei yuan Chao yundong [The great resist-America, aid-Korea campaign] (Beijing: Renmin, 1954), a collection of documents on domestic mobilization. For a selection of Korean War materials translated from Jianguo yilai, volume 1, see Li Xiaobing et al., "Mao's Despatch of Chinese Troops into Korea: Forty-Six Telegrams, July-October 1950," Chinese Historians 5 July-October 1950,” Chinese Historians 5 (Spring 1992), 63-86; Li Xiaobing and Glenn Tracy, "Mao's Telegrams During the Korean War, October-December 1950,” Chinese Historians 5 (Fall 1992), 65-85. Goncharov et al., Uncertain Partners, 22991, serves up a generous sampling of Chinese as well as Soviet documents on the origins of the war.

The subsequent Sino-American crisis

over the Taiwan Strait and Vietnam is getting increasing scrutiny by scholars exploiting fragmentary PRC revelations and documentation. Zhang Shu Guang, Deterrence and Strategic Culture: Chinese-American Confrontations, 1949-1958 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992), relates new information from Chinese sources to theoretical concerns with deterrence, calculated decision-making, and "learning" by policymakers. John W. Lewis and Xue Litai, China Builds the Bomb (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), reveals how Mao's public dismissal of the American nuclear threat was belied by a high-priority program to create a Chinese bomb.

A long list of special studies helps further fill out our picture of PRC policy: Chen Jian, “China and the First Indochina War, 1950-54," China Quarterly 133 (March 1993), 85-110; Qiang Zhai, "Transplanting the Chinese Model: Chinese Military Advisers and the First Vietnam War, 1950-1954," Journal of Military History 57 (October 1993), 689-715; Qiang Zhai, "China and the Geneva Conference of 1954," China Quarterly 129 (March 1992), 103-22; Gordon H. Chang and He Di, "The Absence of War in the U.S.-China Confrontation over Quemoy and Matsu in 1954-1955: Contingency, Luck, Deterrence?" American Historical Review 98 (December 1993), 1500-24; Xiaobing Li, "Chinese Intentions and 1954-55 Offshore Islands Crisis," Chinese Historians 3 (January 1990), 45-59; He Di, "The Evolution of the People's Republic of China's Policy toward the Offshore Islands," in The Great Powers in East Asia, 1953-1960 (cited above), 222-45; and Chen Jian, "China's Involvement with the Vietnam War, 196469," China Quarterly 142 (June 1995), 357387.

Our understanding of the PRC's Taiwan and Vietnam policies is, much like insights on Korea, in debt to the Chinese military. Xu Yan, Jinmen zhi zhan (19491959 nian) [The battle for Jinmen (19491959)] (Beijing: Zhongguo guangbo dianshi, 1992), and Zhongguo junshi guwentuan lishi bianxiezu, Zhongguo junshi guwentuan yuanYue kangFa douzheng shishi [Historical facts about the struggle by the Chinese military advisory team to assist Vietnam and resist France] (Beijing: Jiefangjun, 1990; "internal circulation"), are but examples from what is likely to become an imposing body of work.

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