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See, e.g., Army-General A.D. Lizichev, "Oktyabr' i Leninskoe uchenie o zashchite revolyutsii," Kommunist (Moscow), No. 3 (February 1987), p. 96; Admiral A. I. Sorokin, ed., Sovetskie vooruzhenye sily na strazhe mira i sotsializma (Moscow: Nauka, 1988), p. 254; V. V. Semin, ed., Voenno-politicheskoe sotrudnichestvo sotsialisticheskikh stran (Moscow: Nauka, 1988), esp. pp. 127-141, 181-220; and the interview with Army-General V. N. Lobov in "I tol'ko pravda ko dvoru," Izvestiya (Moscow), 8 May 1989, pp. 1, 3.

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Budapest Domestic Service, 28 January 1989. 8 "TsK KPSS: Ob izuchenii arkhivov TSK KPSS, kasayushchikhsya sobytii 1956 g. v Vengrii,” Report No. 06/2-513 (Secret), from R. Fedorov and P. Laptev, deputy heads of the CPSU CC International Department and CPSU CC General Department, respectively, 23 November 1990, in Tsentr Khraneniya Sovremennoi Dokumentatsii (TsKhSD), Moscow, Fond (F.) 89, Opis' (Op.) 11, Delo (D.) 23, List (L.) 1. The memorandum warned that the "new Hungarian authorities" were "clearly intending to use this question [i.e., the 1956 invasion] as a means of pressure against us." For the article praising the invasion, see Lieut.Colonel Jozsef Forigy, “O kontrrevolyutsii v Vengrii 1956 goda," Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal (Moscow), No. 8 (August 1990), pp. 39-46. This article was explicitly intended to counter the "trai

torous revisionists" in Hungary who had claimed that the events of 1956 were a "popular uprising" and who in 1989-90 were carrying out a second "counterrevolution." The article was unstinting in its denunciation of the "traitors" led by Imre Nagy and of the "new counterrevolutionaries in our midst today who regard themselves as the heirs of 1956." The chief editor of the Soviet journal, Major-General Viktor Filatov, endorsed the Hungarian author's arguments and warmly recommended the article to his readers. Filatov added that “upon reading the article, one cannot help but notice features of that [earlier] counterrevolutionary period that are similar to the changes occurring in the East European countries at the present time."

Jelcin-dosszie Szoviet dokumentumok 1956 rol. Budapest: Dohany, 1993); and Hianyzo Lapok: 1956 tortenetebol: Dokumentumok a volt SZKP KP Leveltarabol (Budapest: Zenit Konyvek, 1993).

10 "O sobytiyakh 1956 goda v Vengrii," Diplomaticheskii vestnik (Moscow), Nos. 19-20 (15-31 October 1992), pp. 52-56.

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See, in particular, the segment of Khrushchev's memoirs published in "Memuary Nikity Sergeevicha Khrushcheva," Voprosy istorii (Moscow), No. 4 (1995), pp. 68-84. Another extremely useful account is available in the memoir by the former Yugoslav ambassador in Moscow, Veljko Micunovic, Moscow Diary, trans. by David Floyd (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1980). Because of his fluency in Russian and close ties with Tito, Micunovic regularly had direct contacts with Khrushchev and other senior figures. Less reliable, but potentially illuminating (if used with caution), are the relevant portions of the memoir by the police chief in Budapest during the revolution, Sandor Kopacsi, Au nom de la classe ouvriere (Paris: Editions Robert Laffont, 1979), which is also available in English translation under the same title (In the Name of the Working Class). Kopasci ended up siding with the insurgents and was arrested in November 1956. He was sentenced to life imprisonment in June 1958, but was granted amnesty in 1963. In 1974 he was permitted to emigrate to Canada.

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meetings dealing with Khrushchev's secret speech at the 20th CPSU Congress, but these notes have not been made more widely available. See V. P. Naumov, "K istorii sekretnogo doklada N. S. Khrushcheva na XX s❞ezde KPSS," Novaya i noveishaya istoriya (Moscow), No. 4 (July-August 1996), pp. 147-168; Vladimir Naumov, "Utverdit' dokladchikom tovarishcha,'" Moskovskie Novosti, No. 5 (4-11 February 1996), p. 34; and Aleksei Bogomolov, "K 40-letiyu XX s"ezda: Taina zakrytogo doklada," Sovershenno sekretno (Moscow), No. 1 (1996), pp. 3-4. 14 Vyacheslav Sereda and Janos M. Rainer, eds., Dontes a Kremlben, 1956: A szovjet partelnokseg vitai Magyarorszagrol (Budapest: 1956-os Intezet, 1996).

15 The notes about Hungary appeared in two parts under the title "Kak reshalis' 'voprosy Vengrii': Rabochie zapisi zasedanii Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, iyul'-noyabr' 1956 g.,” Istoricheskii arkhiv (Moscow), Nos. 2 and 3 (1996), pp. 73-104 and 87121, respectively. The notes about Poland appeared in Issue No. 5 of the same journal.

16

See the assessment of this meeting and the annotated translation of the Czech notes by Mark Kramer, "Hungary and Poland, 1956: Khrushchev's CPSU CC Presidium Meeting on East European Crises, 24 October 1956," Cold War International History Project Bulletin, Issue No. 5 (Spring 1995), pp. 1, 50-56. The Czech document, "Zprava o jednani na UV KSSS 24. rijna 1956 k situaci v Polsku a Maďarsku," 25 October 1956, in Statni Ustredni Archiv (Praha), Archiv Ustredniho Vyboru Komunisticke Strany Ceskoslovenska (Arch. UV KSC), Fond (F.) 07/

16 - A. Novotny, Svazek (Sv.) 3, was compiled by Jan Svoboda, a senior aide to the then-leader of Czechoslovakia, Antonin Novotny, who attended the CPSU Presidium meeting.

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problemy polityczne (1) i (2),” Wojsko i Wychowanie (Warsaw), Nos. 1-2 (1992), pp. 4078; and Robert Los, Pazdziernik 1956 roku w perspektywie stosunkow polsko-radzieckich, Ph.D. Diss., University of Lodz, 1993. For a sample of other perspectives on the 1956 Polish crisis, see Zbyslaw Rykowski and Wieslaw Wladyka, Polska proba Pazdziernik ‘56 (Krakow: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1989), pp. 232-234; Sprawozdanie z prac Komisii KC PZPR powolanej dla wyjasnienia przyczyn i przebiegu konfliktow spolecznuch w dziejach Polski Ludowej, special issue of Nowe Drogi (Warsaw), September 1983, see esp. pp. 21-32; Benon Dymek, ed., Pazdziernik 1956: Szkice historyczne (Warsaw: Akademia Nauk Spolecznych, 1989); Bogdan Hillebrandt, ed., Ideowopolityczne kontrowersje i konflikty lat 1956-1970 (Warsaw: Akademia Nauk Spolecznych, 1986); Grzegorz Matuszak, Kryzysy spoleczno-polityczne w procesie budowy socjalizmu w Polsce Ludowej (Warsaw: Akademia Nauk Spolecznych PZPR, 1986); and Antoni Czubinski, “Kryzys polityczny 1956 roku w Polsce," in Antoni Czubinski, ed., Kryzysy spoleczno-polityczne w Polsce Ludowej (Warsaw: Instytut Podstawowych Problemow MarksizmuLeninizmu, 1983), pp. 80-114.

22 "Zapis' besedy N. S. Khrushcheva v Varshave," No. 233 (Special Dossier - Strictly Secret), notes by A. Mikoyan, 19-20 October 1956, in Arkhiv Prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii (APRF), F. 3, Op. 65, D. 2, Ll. 1-14. Further details about this meeting are contained in "Zprava o jednani na UV KSSS 24. rijna 1956,"

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25 At the time, there were still 79 Soviet officers, including 28 generals, serving in the Polish army. See Edward Jan Nalepa, Oficerowie Radziecky w Wojsku Polskim w latach 1943-1968: Studium historyczno-wojskowe (Warsaw: Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, 1992), p. 43. For a valuable discussion of the military confrontation, see "Wojskowe aspekty pazdziernika 1956 r.," Polska Zbrojna (Warsaw), 18-20 October 1991, p. 3. 26

This account is based on documents recently declassified at the Internal Military Service Archive (Archiwum Wojskowej Sluzby Wewnetrznej, or AWSW) and the Central Military Archive (Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe, or CAW) in Warsaw, which were provided to the author by Leszek Gluchowski. See, in particular, the two reports compiled by Major Witold Osinski, deputy chief of the 2nd Section of the KBW's Military Counterintelligence Directorate, in AWSW, sygn. 2859/20/K and CAW, sygn. 1812/92/8. See also the invaluable first-hand account by Wlodzimierz Mus, the KBW commander at the time, "Spor generalow o Pazdziernik 1956: Czy grozila interwencja zbrojna?" Polityka (Warsaw), No. 42 (20 October 1990), p. 14.

27 "Zapis' besedy N. S. Khrushcheve v

Varshave," L. 4.

28 Comments by Stefan Staszewski, former PZPR CC Secretary, in Teresa Toranska, ed., Oni (London: Aneks, 1985), p. 148.

29 "Komunikat o naradach Biura Politycznego KC PZPR i delegacji KC KPZR w Warszawie," Trybuna Ludu (Warsaw), 20 October 1956, p. 1. 30 "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 20 oktyabrya 1956 g.," 20 October 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1005, LI. 49-50.

31 This was evident, for example, when Ochab stopped in Moscow in September 1956 on his way back from Beijing. See "Priem Posla Pol'skoi Narodnoi Respubliki v SSSR tov. V. Levikovskogo, 10 sentyabrya 1956 g.," 11 September 1956 (Secret), memorandum from N. Patolichev, Soviet deputy foreign minister, in Arkhiv Vneshnei Politiki Rossiiskoi Federatsii (AVPRF), F. Referentura po Pol'she, Op. 38, Por. 9, Papka, 126, D. 031, L. 1.

32 "Antisovetskaya kampaniya v pol'skoi presse,” Pravda (Moscow), 20 October 1956, p. 1. 33 “Rabochaya zapis zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 21 oktyabrya 1956 g.,” 21 October 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, L. 2.

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For the full transcript of these sessions, see “Jegyzokonyv a Szovjet es a Magyar part-es allami vezetok targyalasairol," 13-16 June 1953 (Top Secret), in Magyar Orszagos Leveltar, 276, F. 102/65, oe. The document was declassified in 1991 and published the following year in the Hungarian journal Multunk. A preliminary translation by Monika Borbely was included in Christian F. Ostermann, ed., The Post-Stalin Succession Struggle and the 17 June Uprising in East Germany: The Hidden History, a compendium of documents prepared by the Cold War International History Project (CWIHP) and the National Security Archive for a November 1996 international conference (hosted by the Center for Contemporary History Research in Potsdam) on "The Crisis Year 1953 and the Cold War in Europe." 46 "Plenum TSK KPSS - XIX Sozyv: Stenogramma chetyrnadtsatogo zasedaniya 12 iyulya 1955 g. (utrennego),” July 1955 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 2, Op. 1, D. 176, L. 143.

47 "Shifrtelegramma," Special Nos. 316-319/No. 16595 (Strictly Secret), from Yu. V. Andropov to the CPSU Presidium and CPSU Secretariat, 30 April 1956, in TsKhSD, F. 89, Op. 45, D. 1, L. 2. 48 Ibid., L. 5.

49 “Vypiska iz protokola zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS ot 3 maya 1956 g.,” No. P13/XXIII (Strictly Secret), 3 May 1956, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, L. 133.

50 "Telefonogramma iz Budapeshta v TsK KPSS," 13 June 1956 (Top Secret), from M. A. Suslov to the CSPU Presidium and Secretariat, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, Ll. 146-149. 51 "Zapis' besedy N. S. Khrushcheva s kitaiskimi tovarishchami 2 oktyabrya 1959 g. v Pekine," 2 October 1959 (Top Secret/Special Dossier), in APRF, F. 3, Op. 65, D. 331, L. 12. For other disparaging remarks by Khrushchev about Rakosi, see Micunovic, Moscow Diary, pp. 135136, 140.

52 See Janos Kadar's remarks to this effect in "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 3 noyabrya 1956 g.,” 3 November 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, Ll. 31-33ob.

53 The resolution was broadcast on Hungarian domestic radio on 30 June and published in Szabad Nep the following day. For an English translation, see Paul E. Zinner, ed., National Communism and Popular Revolt in Eastern Europe: A Selection of Documents on Events in Poland and Hungary, February-November 1956 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956), pp. 328331.

54

"Shifrtelegramma," from Yu. V. Andropov to the CPSU Presidium and Secretariat, 9 July 1956 (Special Dossier - Strictly Secret), in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, LI. 151-162. All quotations in this paragraph are from Andropov's cable. 55 “Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 9 i 12 iyulya 1956 g.,” Ll. 2-2ob. 56 "TsK KPSS," 18 July 1956 (Strictly SecretUrgent), Osobaya papka, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, L. 231. 57 Ibid., L. 232.

58 “Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 9 i 12 iyulya 1956 g.,” L. 2.

59 "Vypiska iz Protokola No. 28 zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS ot 12 iyulya 1956 g.," 12 July 1956 (Strictly Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 14, D. 41, LI. 1-2.

60 “Rastut i krepnut mezhdunarodnye sily mira, demokratii i sotsializma,” Pravda (Moscow), 16 July 1956, pp. 2-3.

61 "Zapis' besedy A. I. Mikoyana s Matyashem Rakoshi, Andrashem Hegedushem, Erne Gere i Beloi Vegom, 13 iyulya 1956 g.," 17 July 1956

(Secret), compiled by Yu. V. Andropov, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, LI. 186-190.

62

"Zapis' vystuplenii na zasedaniya Politbyuro TSR VPT, 13 iyulya 1956 g.,” 17 July 1956 (Secret), compiled by Yu. V. Andropov, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, Ll. 191-205; and "TsK KPSS," 16 July 1956 (Strictly Secret - Urgent), Osobaya Papka, APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, LI. 183-185. See also "Zapis' besedy A. I. Mikoyana s Yanoshem Kadarom, 14 iyulya 1956 g.," 17 July 1956 (Top Secret), compiled by Yu. V. Andropov, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, LI. 206-215. 63..

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"TsK KPSS," 18 July 1956 (Strictly Secret Urgent), Osobaya papka, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, LI. 225-236. On the eve of the plenum, Mikoyan also held talks with key members of the HWP Central Leadership to ensure that Gero's candidacy would be supported.

64 Malashenko, "Osobyi korpus v ogne Budapeshta" (Part 1), pp. 23-24.

65 "Plan deistvii Osobogo korpusa po vosstanovleniyu obshchestvennogo poryadka na territorii Vengrii,” 20 July 1956 (Strictly Secret), as recorded in Tsentral'nyi arkhiv Ministerstva oborony (TSAMO), F. 32, Op. 701291, D. 15, LI. 130-131.

66 "TSK KPSS" (cited in Note 63 supra), L. 231. 67 "Zapis' besedy s Erno Gere, 2 sentyabrya 1956 g.," 27 September 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 5, Op. 28, D. 394, Ll. 254-256. 68 Ibid., L. 256.

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71

Countless books and articles about the Hungarian revolution have been published since 1956. For a vivid and well-researched account of the events of 23-24 October, see Bill Lomax, Hungary 1956 (London: Allison & Busby, 1976), esp. pp. 106-123. For other useful perspectives, see Ferenc A. Vali, Rift and Revolt in Hungary: Nationalism versus Communism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961); Paul Kecskemeti, The Unexpected Revolution: Social Forces in the Hungarian Uprising (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961); Charles Gati, Hungary and the Soviet Bloc (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1986); and Paul E. Zinner, Revolution in Hungary (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962). Until recently, reliable Hungarian-language accounts were relatively few in number, but that has changed dramatically since Communism ended. The large number of publications put out in Budapest by the Institute for the History of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution are

a particularly rich source, as are some of the monographs sponsored by the Institute of History at the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Reassessments of the 1956 crises, based on newly declassified materials and new memoirs, were presented at a landmark international "Conference on Hungary and the World, 1956: The New Archival Evidence," which was organized in Budapest on 26-29 September 1996 by the National Security Archive, the CWIHP, and the Institute for the History of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution.

72 Malashenko, "Osobyi korpus v ogne Budapeshta" (Part 1), pp. 24-25. 73 Other key sources are "Zprava o jednani na UV KSSS 24. rijna 1956,” Ll. 8-14; Malashenko, "Osobyi korpus v ogne Budapeshta” (Part 1), pp. 22-30; and "TsK KPSS," Memorandum from Marshal Georgii Zhukov, Soviet minister of defense, and Marshal Vasilii Sokolovskii, chief of the Soviet General Staff, 24 October 1956 (Strictly Secret - Special Dossier) to the CPSU Presidium, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 484, Ll. 8587.

74

The written request, dated 24 October 1956 and signed by then-prime minister Andras Hegedus, was transmitted by Andropov in a ciphered telegram on 28 October. See "Shifrtelegramma" (Strictly Secret - Urgent), 28 October 1956, from Yu. V. Andropov, in AVPRF, F. 059a, Op. 4, P. 6, D. 5, L. 12. [Ed. note: For an English translation, see CWIHP Bulletin 5 (Spring 1995), p. 30.]

75 “Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 23 oktyabrya 1956 g.,” Ll. 4-4ob. 76 “Zprava o jednani na UV KSSS 24. rijna

1956," L. 9.

77 Malashenko, "Osobyi korpus v ogne Budapeshta" (Part 1), p. 27.

78

The preliminary directives are recorded in TSAMO, F. 32, Op. 701291, D. 15, Ll. 130-131. 79 "TSK KPSS," Memorandum from Marshal Georgii Zhukov, Soviet minister of defense, and Marshal Vasilii Sokolovskii, chief of the Soviet General Staff, 24 October 1956 (Strictly Secret— Special Dossier) to the CPSU Presidium, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 484, Ll. 85-87. This memorandum lays out in detail the complexion and assignments of the Soviet ground and air forces. 80.

"Shifrtelegramma iz Budapeshta,” Cable from A. Mikoyan and M. Suslov to the CPSU Presidium, 24 October 1956 (Strictly Secret), in AVPRF, F. 059a, Op. 4, Pap. 6, D. 5, L. 2. [Ed. note: For an English translation, see CWIHP Bulletin 5 (Spring 1995), pp. 22-23, 29.]

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gents was recently declassified at the main Russian military archive, TSAMO, F. 32, Op. 701291, D. 17, LI. 33-48.

82.

"Shifrtelegramma iz Budapeshta," Cable from

A. Mikoyan and M. Suslov to the CPSU Presidium, 25 October 1956 (Strictly Secret), in AVPRF, F. 059a, Op. 4, Pap. 6, D. 5, L. 8.

83 Important samples of these messages, declassified in 1992, are available in "Vengriya, oktyabr'-noyabr' 1956 goda: Iz arkhiva TSK KPSS," Istoricheskii arkhiv (Moscow), No. 5 (1993), pp. 132-141.

84 "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 26 oktyabrya 1956 g.,” Ll. 62-62ob. 85 Citations here are from "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 28 oktyabrya 1956 g.," Ll. 54-63.

86 "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 28 oktyabrya 1956," 28 October 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1005, LI. 54-63.

87 “Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 30 oktyabrya 1956 g.," 30 October 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, Ll. 6-14.

88 Ibid., L. 14.

89

"Deklaratsiya o printsipakh razvitiya i dal'neishem ukreplenii druzhby i sotrudnichestva mezhdu SSSR i drugimi sotsialisticheskimi stranami," Pravda (Moscow), 31 October 1956, p. 1. For the CPSU Presidium decision to issue the declaration, see "Vypiska iz Protokola No. 49 zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS ot 30 oktyabrya 1956 g.: O polozhenii v Vengrii," No. P49/1 (Strictly Secret), 30 October 1956, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 484, Ll. 25-30.

90 "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 30 oktyabrya 1956 g.,” Ll. 9, 10. 91

"TSK KPSS," High-Frequency Transmission, 30 October 1956 (Strictly Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 89, Op. 45, D. 12, L. 2.

92

Kovacs's remarks, at a meeting of the Independent Smallholders Party in Pecs, were reported in the first issue of the revived party newspaper Kis Ujsag (Budapest), 1 November 1956, p. 2. 93 See the first-hand comments by Gyorgy G. Heltai, the Hungarian deputy foreign minister under Nagy's government, "International Aspects," in Bela K. Kiraly and Paul Jonas, The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 in Retrospect, East European Monograph No. XL (Boulder, Col.: East European Quarterly, 1978), esp. pp. 52-53. The negotiations are also briefly recounted in Tibor Meray, Thirteen Days That Shook the Kremlin: Imre Nagy and the Hungarian Revolution, trans. by Howard L. Katzander (London: Thames and Hudson, 1959), pp. 163-165; and "Szemtol

szembe Mikojannal es Szuszloval," Igazsag (Budapest), 1 November 1956, p. 1.

94 The theme of Hungarian neutrality was emphasized in several of Nagy's essays in On Communism: In Defense of the New Course (London: Thames and Hudson, 1957). The Soviet Union's backing for Rakosi against Nagy in March-April 1955 was clearly one of the factors that prompted Nagy to consider the prospect of neutrality.

95 Khrushchev, "Memuary Nikity Sergeevicha Khrushcheva," pp. 73-74.

96 “Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 31 oktyabrya 1956 g.," Ll. 15-18ob. 97 "Vypiska iz protokola No. 49 zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS ot 31 oktyabrya 1956 g.: O polozhenii v Vengrii," No. P49/VI (Strictly Secret), 31 October 1956, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 484, L. 41.

98 For a detailed survey of the crisis as recorded in declassified U.S. documents, see U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, Vol. XVI: Suez Crisis, July 26-December 31, 1956 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990).

99

"Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 28 oktyabrya 1956 g.,” L. 61. 100

"Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 31 oktyabrya 1956 g.," 31 October 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, Ll. 15-18ob. If Khrushchev had been privy to secret U.S. deliberations, he would have realized that the United States had no intention of directly supporting the French-British-Israeli operation, either militarily or diplomatically. See, for example, "Memorandum of a Conference with the President, White House, Washington, 30 October 1956, 10:06-10:55 am," in FRUS, 1955-57, Vol. XVI, pp. 851-855.

101 "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 4 noyabrya 1956 g.," L. 34. On this same point, Sandor Kopasci recounts a very intriguing comment that Ivan Serov, the head of the Soviet KGB, allegedly made when he was arresting Kopasci just after the invasion: "Suez caught us [in Moscow] by surprise. We were compelled to resort to military measures in the Danube Basin because of that area's strategic importance to any operations we might conduct in the Near East." See Kopasci, Au nom de la classe ouvriere, p. 201. If Kopasci recorded Serov's statement accurately, and if-assuming the statement is accurate Serov was being sincere, this passage sheds valuable light on Khrushchev's remarks. 102 Micunovic, Moscow Diary, p. 136.

103 Ibid.

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Khrushcheva," p. 73.

105 "Protocol No. 54 al sedintei Biroului Politic al CC al PMR din 24 oct. 1956," 24 October 1956 (Top Secret), in Arhiva Comitetului Central al Partidului Comunist Roman (Arh. CCPCR), Bucharest, F. Biroul Politic, Dosar (Do.) 354/56, ff. 1-5. This document is included in the valuable new collection edited by Corneliu Mihai Lungu and Mihai Retegan, 1956 Explozia: Perceptii romane, iugoslave si sovietice asupra evenimentelor din Polonia si Ungaria (Bucharest: Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 1996). 106 Ibid.

107 "Protocol No. 55 al sedintei Biroului Politic al CC al PMR din 26 oct. 1956," 26 October 1956 (Top Secret), in Arh. CCPCR, F. Biroul Politic, Do. 355/56, ff. 1-5.

108

"Protocol Nr. 58 al sedintei Biroului Politic al CC al PMR din 30 oct. 1956," 30 October 1956 (Top Secret), in Arh. CCPCR, F. Biroul Politic, Do. 358/56, ff. 3-5. 109

"Stenograma conferintei organizatiei regionale al CC al PMR," 23 November 1956 (Top Secret), in Arh. CCPCR, F. 85, Do. 84/56, Ff. 1-8. This report is not included in the Lungu/ Retegan volume. I am grateful to Mihai Retegan for providing me with a copy of the document. 110 Ibid.

111 Ibid. See also Constantin Botoran, "National Interest in Romanian Politics During the Cold War" (Bucharest: Institute for Military Theory and History, Romanian Ministry of Defense, March 1994), pp. 7-8. 112 "Protocol Nr. 58 al sedintei Biroului Politic al CC al PMR din 30 oct. 1956," ff. 3-5.

113 "Stenograficky zapis ze zasedani UV KSC,” 5-6 December 1956 (Top Secret), in SUA, Arch. UV KSC, F. 07, Sv. 14, Archivna jednotka (A.j.)

14.

114 "Zabezpeceni klidu na uzemi CSR a statnich hranic s Mad'arskem," Report from Col.-General Vaclav Kratochvil, chief of the Czechoslovak General Staff, and Lieut.-General Jaroslav Dockal, chief of operations, 29 October 1956 (Top Secret), in Vojensky historicky archiv (VHA) Praha, Fond Ministra narodni obrany (MNO) CSR, 1956, Operacni sprava Generalniho stabu cs. armady (GS/OS), 2/8-39b. 115 Ibid., p. 5.

116 "Souhrn hlaseni operacniho dustojnika Generalniho stabu cs. armady," Notes from Col.General Vaclav Kratochvil, chief of the Czechoslovak General Staff, to the KSC Central Committee (Top Secret), 27 October 1956, in VHA Praha, F. MNO, 1956, GS/OS, 2/8-49b. 117

"Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 1 noyabrya 1956 g.," 1 November

1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, L. 22.

118 Wilfried Otto, ed., "Ernst Wollweber: Aus Erinnerungen Ein Portraet Walter Ulbrichts," Beitraege zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung (Berlin), No. 3 (1990), pp. 365-367. 119

Speech by Grotewohl to the CC plenum of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), 13 November 1956, in Stiftung Archiv der Parteien und Massenorganisationen im Bundesarchiv, Zentrales Parteiarchiv (Berlin), DY 30/IV 2/1/ 166, p. 247.

120

"Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 4 noyabrya 1956 g.," L. 35ob. For illuminating analyses of the impact of the 1956 events on the East German authorities, see Hope M. Harrison, “The Effect of the 1956 Hungarian Uprising on the East German Leadership," and Christian F. Ostermann, "East Germany and the Hungarian Revolution, 1956," both presented at the "Conference on Hungary and the World, 1956."

121 For a detailed, top-secret account of the disorders, see "Zakrytoe pis'mo," 12 March 1956 (Top Secret), from S. Statnikov, Tbilisi correspondent for Trud, to the CPSU Central Committee, in TsKHSD, F. 5, Op. 30, D. 140, Ll. 53-67. 122 "Prikaz No. 14 Nachal'nika Tbilisskogo garnizona," from Major-General Gladkov, commander of the Tbilisi garrison, 9 March 1956, in TsKhSD, F. 5, Op. 30, D. 140, L. 68.

123 "O kul'te lichnosti i preodolenii ego posledstvii," in KPSS v rezolyutsiyakh i resheniyakh s"ezdov, konferentsii i plenumov TsK, 8th ed. (Moscow: Politizdat, 1978), Vol. 7, p. 212.

124 For a cogent analysis of this matter based on newly declassified materials, see M. R. Zezina, “Shokovaya terapiya: Ot 1953-go k 1956 godu,” Otechestvennaya istoriya (Moscow), No. 2 (1995), esp. pp. 129-133. 125

See the first-hand account by the former KGB deputy director, Filipp Bobkov, KGB i vlast' (Moscow: Veteran MP, 1995), pp. 144-145. 126 "TSK KPSS: Informatsiya," 7 November 1956 (Top Secret), from regional KGB stations to the CPSU Presidium, in TsKhSD, F. 5, Op. 30, D. 141, L. 67.

127 "Rabochaya zapis'zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 4 noyabrya 1956 g.," 4 November 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, L. 36ob.

128 Bobkov, KGB i vlast', p. 145. On the new arrests, see Zezina, “Shokovaya terapiya,” p. 130. 129 Gati, Hungary and the Soviet Bloc, p. 153. 130 Khrushchev, “Memuary Nikity Sergeevicha Khrushcheva," p. 76.

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133

See, for example, Mikoyan's comments during the secret proceedings of the June 1957 CPSU CC plenum (which removed the Anti-Party Group), in "Plenum TSK KPSS, iyun' 1957 goda: Stenograficheskii otchet," No. P2500 (Strictly Secret), 22-29 June 1957, in TsKhSD, F. 2, Op. 1, D. 259, LI. 27ob-28ob.

134 "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 2 noyabrya 1956 g.," 2 November 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, LI. 23-29; and "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 3 noyabrya 1956 g.," 3 November 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, Ll. 31-33ob. 135 "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 2 noyabrya 1956 g.," L. 24ob. 136 "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 3 noyabrya 1956 g.,” L. 32. 137 "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 2 noyabrya 1956 g.,” L. 29. 138

"Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 3 noyabrya 1956 g.,” Ll. 31-33. 139 In addition to Kadar's account in "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 2 noyabrya 1956 g.," see the cable sent to Moscow by Andropov on 1 November"Shifrtelegramma," 1 November 1956 (Strictly Secret), in AVPRF, F. 059a, Op. 4, P. 6, D. 5, LI. 17-19-which provides valuable corroboration of Kadar's remarks.

140 "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 31 oktyabrya 1956 g.,” Ll. 15-18ob. 141 Khrushchev, "Memuary Nikity Sergeevicha Khrushcheva," pp. 74-75.

142 "Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TSK KPSS, 30 oktyabrya 1956 g.," in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, Ll. 6-14. The principles of Pancha Shila were endorsed in a joint statement by Chinese prime minister Zhou Enlai and Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru in New Delhi on 28 June 1954. The five principles were intended to "guide relations between the two countries" as well as "relations with other countries in Asia and in other parts of the world." For the full text of the statement, see G. V. Ambekar and V. D. Divekar, eds., Documents on China's Relations with South and South-East Asia (19491962) (New York: Allied Publishers, 1964), pp. 7-8. 143

In addition to Khrushchev's account of the

airport meeting, see the contemporary observations recorded by Micunovic in Moscow Diary,

pp. 132 and 138, which fully bear out Khrushchev's version. Unfortunately, all Chinese archives that might shed greater light on China's role in the 1956 events are still closed. For an assessment based on Chinese-language evidence that has surfaced to date-largely memoirs (whose reliability is questionable) and published compilations of documents selected and edited by Chinese authorities-see Chen Jian, "Beijing and the Hungarian Crisis of 1956," presented at the "Conference on Hungary and the World, 1956." Chen Jian and other scholars are seeking additional evidence on this matter, and their findings will appear in future CWIHP publications. 144 First-hand accounts of the meetings are available in Khrushchev, "Memuary Nikity Sergeevicha Khrushcheva,” pp. 75-77, which have been well corroborated by other sources, including Khrushchev's observations at the time, as recorded in Micunovic, Moscow Diary, pp. 135, 138-139. Newly declassified documents pertaining to the meetings are cited below. 145

See "Zapis' telefonogrammy," c. 1 November 1956, in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1005, L. 66.

146 "Protokol Nr. 135 posiedzenia Biura Politycznego w dn. 1.XI.1956 r.," 1 November 1956 (Top Secret), in Archiwum Akt Nowych (AAN), Warsaw, Archiwum Komitetu Centralnego Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Rabotniczej (Arch. KC PZPR), Paczka (Pa.) 15, Tom (T.) 58, Dokument (Dok.) 134. This protocol is included in the valuable collection of declassified Polish documents edited by Janos Tischler, Rewolucja wegierska 1956 w polskich dokumentach, Dokumenty do dziejow PRL No.

8 (Warsaw: Instytut Studiow Politycznych, 1995).

147 "Odezwa Komitetu Centralnego Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Rabotniczej do klasy robotniczej, do narodu polskiego," Trybuna Ludu (Warsaw), 2 November 1956, p. 1. 148 "Rozmowy radziecko-wegierskie,” Trybuna Ludu (Warsaw), 3 November 1956, p. 1. 149

Gomulka's conflicting thoughts about the matter can be seen in "Stenogram Krajowej Narady Aktywu Partyjnego odbutego w dn. 4 listopada 1956 r.: Wystapenia W. Gomulki," 4 November 1956 (Top Secret), in AAN, Arch. KC PZPR, 237/V-241.

150 "Protokol Nr. 136 posiedzenia Biura Politycznego w dniu 4 listopada 1956 r.," 4 November 1956 (Top Secret), in AAN, Arch. KC PZPR, Pa. 15, T. 58, Dok. 135.

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