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Revolutionary-Mao Zedong in 19191921," Journal of Asian Studies 42 (November 1982), 29-61; He Di, "The Most Respected Enemy: Mao Zedong's Perception of the United States," China Quarterly 137 (March 1994), 144-58; and Benjamin I. Schwartz, "The Maoist Image of the World Order," Journal of International Affairs 21 (1967), 92-102. The Schwartz article is notable as a pioneering effort to inject more sophistication and subtlety into the study of Mao's guiding ideas by placing earlier foreign relations practices and experience as well as twentieth-century nationalism alongside Marxist-Leninist sources.

There is a good body of writings on Mao's early years. The starting point has long been Mao's own recital in Edgar Snow's Red Star Over China (originally published 1938; New York: Grove Press, 1961). The first to add to the picture was Xiao San (Emi Hsiao), Mao Zedong tongzhi de qingshaonian shidai [Comrade Mao Zedong's boyhood and youth] (originally published 1948; rev. and exp. ed., Guangzhou: Xinhua, 1950). A translation is available as Mao Tse-tung: His Childhood and Youth (Bombay: People's Publishing House, 1953). Li Rui followed with Mao Zedong tongzhi de chuqi geming huodong [Comrade Mao Zedong's initial revolutionary activities] (Beijing: Zhongguo qingnian, 1957). The translation prepared by Anthony W. Sariti and James C. Hsiung appears as The Early Revolutionary Activities of Mao Tse-tung (White Plains, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1977). Li Rui has since offered a revised and expanded version of the biography: Mao Zedong de zaoqi geming huodong [Mao Zedong's early revolutionary activity] (Changsha: Hunan renmin, 1980). The recollections by Siao Yu (Xiao Yü; Xiao Zisheng), Mao Tse-tung and I Were Beggars (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1959), sound a somewhat sour tone. Recently a full collection of early writings has been published in China: Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi and Zhonggong Hunan shengwei "Mao Zedong zaoqi wengao" bianjizu, comps., Mao Zedong zaoqi wengao, 1912.6-1920.11 [Mao Zedong manuscripts from the early period, June 1912-November 1920] (Changsha: Hunan, 1990; "internal circulation"). M. Henri Day offers translations of some early writings in Mao Zedong, 19171927: Documents (Stockholm: publisher not

indicated, 1975).

The officially sanctioned and most frequently cited collection of Mao's writings, post- as well as pre-1949, is Mao Zedong xuanji [Selected works of Mao Zedong] (5 vols.; Beijing: Renmin, 1952-77). It has long vols.; Beijing: Renmin, 1952-77). It has long been available in translation: Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung (5 vols.; Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1961-77).

Aware that Selected Works is highly selective and politically edited, scholars outside China have subjected the Mao corpus to critical analysis, sought to supplement it with fresh materials, and prepared translations based on the most authentic originals available. The effort began in earnest with Stuart Schram's 1963 compilation and translation of key documents, The Political Thought of Mao Tse-tung (rev. ed.; Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin, 1969). The major nonofficial collection, launched in Japan under the supervision of Takeuchi Minoru, provided a reliable and considerably fuller body of Mao materials at least down to 1949. The first series appeared as Mao Zedong ji [Collected writings of Mao Zedong] (10 vols.; Tokyo: Hokubosha, 1971-72); it was followed by a second, supplementary series, Mao Zedong ji bujuan [Supplements to the collected writings of Mao Zedong] (9 vols.; Tokyo: Sososha, 1983-85). A parallel project to provide a full English-language collection, Mao's Road to Power: Revolutionary Writings, 1912-1949, is now underway. The PreMarxist Period, 1912-1920, ed. Stuart R. Schram (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1992), is the first volume to appear.

Collections compiled by the party history establishment in China over the last decade have added significant, fresh light on Mao's general outlook and his emergence as a maker of foreign policy. These collections include Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, comp., Mao Zedong shuxin xuanji [A selection of Mao Zedong correspondence] (Beijing: Renmin, 1983); Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi and Xinhua tongxunshe, comps., Mao Zedong xinwen gongzuo wenxuan [A selection of Mao Zedong works on journalism] (Beijing: Xinhua, 1983); and Zhonggong zhongyang tongyi zhanxian gongzuobu yanjiushi et al., comps., Mao Zedong lun tongyi zhanxian [Mao Zedong on the united front] (Beijing: Zhongguo wenshi, 1988).

The hundredth anniversary of Mao's birth gave rise to new compilations. One was

a new series on Mao the military strategist: Junshi kexue chubanshe and Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, comps., Mao Zedong junshi wenji [A collection of Mao Zedong works on military affairs] (6 vols.; Beijing: publisher same as compiler, 1993), which expands on Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun junshi kexueyuan, comp., Mao Zedong junshi wenxuan [A selection of Mao Zedong works on military affairs] (Beijing: Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhanshi, 1981; "internal circulation"; Tokyo reprint: Sososha, 1985). A second is the detailed and authoritative account of Mao's emergence and triumph as a revolutionary leader in Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (under the direction of Pang Xianzhi), Mao Zedong nianpu, 1893-1949 [A chronological biography of Mao Zedong, 1893-1949] (3 vols.; Beijing: Renmin and Zhongyang wenxian, 1993). A third is Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, comp., Mao Zedong wenji [Collected works of Mao Zedong] (2 vols. to date; Beijing: Renmin, 1983-), which stands as a supplement to the well known xuanji (selected works) but which is largely silent on international issues. A fourth anniversary collection on Mao's diplomacy has also appeared: Mao Zedong waijiao wenxuan [Selected Diplomatic Papers of Mao Zedong] (Beijing: The Central Press of Historical Documents, 1994). Helpful in putting Mao's role in the revolution in context are collections of central party documents and the documents on overall united front policy from 1935-1948 (both cited above).

For the post-1949 Mao turn to the classified series compiled by Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao [Mao Zedong manuscripts for the period following the establishment of the country] (8 vols. to date; Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1987- ; “internal circulation"). This series sheds new light on Mao and world affairs down to the late 1950s, and taken together with the outpouring of Mao material during the Cultural Revolution, gives us the basis for beginning to understand Mao's PRC years. The formidable task of collecting, collating, and verifying these materials has only begun. For a good recent guide, see Timothy Cheek, "Textually Speaking: An Assessment of Newly Available Mao Texts," in The Secret Speeches of Chairman Mao: From the Hundred Flowers to the Great Leap Forward, ed. Roderick MacFarquhar et al. (Cambridge:

Harvard Council on East Asian Studies, 1989), 78-81; and Cheek, "The 'Genius' Mao: A Treasure Trove of 23 Newly Available Volumes of Post-1949 Mao Zedong Texts," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 19-20 (January-July 1988), 337-44.

To make the post-1949 Mao materials available in English, Michael Y. M. Kau and John K. Leung launched a translation series in 1986. Two volumes of their The Writings of Mao Zedong, 1949-1976 (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1986- ) have appeared to date covering the period down to December 1957. Their formidable task has been complicated by the continuing flow of new materials out of China. Translated fragments are available elsewhere in a variety of publications by U.S. Joint Publications Research Service (better known as JPRS); in Stuart Schram, Chairman Mao Talks to the People: Talks and Letters, 1956-1971 (New York: Pantheon, 1975); and in MacFarquhar et al., The Secret Speeches (cited above).

Zhou Enlai

zhongyang

Zhou deserves special attention as Mao's chief lieutenant in foreign affairs. For the moment the place to start is the archivally based biography, Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (under the direction of Jin Chongji), Zhou Enlai zhuan, 1898-1949 [Biography of Zhou Enlai, 1898-1949] (Beijing: Renmin and Zhongyang wenxian, 1989). This biography should be used in conjunction with Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, comp., Zhou Enlai nianpu, 1898-1949 [A chronicle of Zhou Enlai's life, 1898-1949] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian and Renmin, 1989). Zhou's early years abroad are richly documented in Huai En, comp., Zhou zongli qingshaonian shidai shiwenshuxinji [A collection of writings from Premier Zhou's youth] (2 vols., Chengdu: Sichuan renmin, 1979-80); and Zhongguo geming bowuguan, comp. Zhou Enlai tongzhi lüou wenji xubian [A supplement to the collected works from the time of comrade Zhou Enlai's residence in Europe] (Beijing: Wenwu, 1982). These materials largely supercede the treatment in Kai-yu Hsu, Chou En-lai: China's Grey Eminence (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968), and Dick Wilson, Zhou Enlai: A Biography (New York: Viking, 1984).

Helpful documentation on Zhou's policy role can be found in Zhonggong zhongyang

wenxian yanjiushi, comp., Zhou Enlai shuxin xuanji [A selection of Zhou Enlai letters] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1988); (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1988); Zhonggong zhongyang tongyi zhanxian gongzuobu and Zhonggong zhongyang gongzuobu and Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, comps., Zhou Enlai tongyi zhanxian wenxuan [A selection of Zhou Enlai writings on the united front] (Beijing: Renmin, 1984); and Zhonghua (Beijing: Renmin, 1984); and Zhonghua renmin gongheguo waijiaobu and Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, comps., Zhou Enlai waijiao wenxuan [Selected diplomatic writings of Zhou Enlai] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1990). These materials go well beyond the limited documentation in Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian bianji weiyuanhui, comp., Zhou Enlai xuanji [Selected works of Zhou Enlai] (2 vols.; Beijing: Renmin, 1980, 1984), which is available in translation as Selected Works of Zhou Enlai (2 vols.; Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1981-89).

For an introduction to recent work in China on Zhou's diplomatic career and thinking, see Zhou Enlai yanjiu xueshu taolunhui lunwenji [Collected academic conference research papers on Zhou Enlai] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1988); Zhonghua renmin gongheguo waijiaobu waijiaoshi bianjishi (under the direction of Pei Jianzhang), ed., Yanjiu Zhou Enlai-waijiao sixiang yu shiyan [Studying Zhou Enlai— diplomatic thought and practice] (Beijing: diplomatic thought and practice] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi, 1989); Zhongguo geming bowuguan et al., comps., Zhou Enlai he tade shiye: yanjiu xuancui [Zhou Enlai and his enterprises: a sampling of studies] (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi, 1991); and Zhonghua renmin gongheguo waijiaobu waijiaoshi renmin gongheguo waijiaobu waijiaoshi yanjiushi, comp., Zhou Enlai waijiao yanjiushi, comp., Zhou Enlai waijiao huodong dashiji, 1949-1975 [A record of Zhou Enlai's diplomatic activities, 19491975] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi, 1993).

The Foreign Policy of the PRC

The new sources and studies that have refashioned our understanding of early CCP attitudes and policies are just beginning to have an impact on the post-1949 period. Until more documentary publications appear and are digested, it is likely that our understanding of PRC foreign policy will remain thin and fragmentary, and the writings in English on the topic will for the most part hold to the well-established political science approaches.

There are several good overviews that must serve for the moment. The Cambridge History of China, vols. 14 and 15, covers PRC foreign policy in chapters by Nakajima Mineo, Allen S. Whiting, Thomas Robinson, and Jonathan D. Pollack, while also offering helpful source essays. Samuel S. Kim, ed., China and the World: Chinese Foreign Relations in the Post-Cold War Era (3rd rev. ed.; Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994), pulls together a good range of up-to-date accounts. John W. Garver, Foreign Relations of the People's Republic of China (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1993), provides a thematic treatment with some attention to the pre-1949 background. Among older surveys Wang Gungwu's terse China and the World Since 1949: The Impact of Independence, Modernity, and Revolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1977), still deserves attention for its commendable stress on setting CCP foreign relations in a broad domestic context.

The PRC's exercise of control over border regions is still only poorly understood. For the moment the best places to start are Dreyer, China's Forty Millions (cited above); A. Tom Grunfeld, The Making of Modern Tibet (London: Zed, and Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1987), chaps. 5-11; and Donald H. McMillen, Chinese Communist Power and Policy in Xinjiang, 1949-1977 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1979).

The general secondary accounts in Chinese on post-1949 policy increasingly reflect the new openness in the PRC but still stick close to the official line. Han Nianlong, chief comp., Dangdai Zhongguo waijiao [Chinese foreign affairs in recent times] (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan, 1987) is the best known of these. That volume has been translated as Diplomacy of Contemporary China (Hong Kong: New Horizon, 1990) by Qiu Ke'an. It appears as a part of the series "Dangdai Zhongguo" (Contemporary China), which includes studies on the armed forces also germane to foreign policy. Zhongguo waijiaoshi: Zhonghua renmin gongheguo shiqi, 1949-1979 [A diplomatic history of China: The PRC period, 19491979] (Zhengzhou: Henan renmin, 1988) is a major survey produced by Xie Yixian, who served in the foreign service before taking up teaching duties in the Foreign Ministry's Foreign Affairs College.

These accounts should be supplemented by such memoirs as Bo Yibo, Ruogan

zhongda juece yu shijian de huigu [Reflections on some major decisions and incidents] (2 vols.; Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao, 1991-93); Li Shengzhi, YaFei huiyi riji [A diary of the Asian-African conference] (Beijing: publisher not indicated, 1986); Liu Xiao, Chushi Sulian banian [Eight years as ambassador to the Soviet Union] (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi ziliao, 1986); Wang Bingnan, ZhongMei huitan jiunian huigu [Looking back on nine years of Sino-American talks] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi, 1985); and Wu Xiuquan, Zai waijiaobu banian de jingli, 1950.1-1958.10 [Eight years' experience in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, January 1950-October 1958] (Beijing: Shijie zhishi, 1983). This last item, the second volume of the Wu memoirs, is translated as Eight Years in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, January 1950-October 1958: Memoirs of a Diplomat (Beijing: New World Press, 1985).

Documentary collections are beginning to open the window on PRC foreign relations. See in particular Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao (cited above); the tightly held collection compiled by Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun zhengzhi xueyuan dangshi jiaoyanshi (renamed Zhongguo jiefangjun guofang daxue dangshi dangjian zhenggong jiaoyanshi), Zhonggong dangshi jiaoxue cankao ziliao [Reference materials for the teaching of CCP history] (vols. to date numbered 12-27 with 25-27 withdrawn; n.p. [Beijing?], n.d. [preface in vol. 12 dated 1985]); Xinhuashe xinwen yanjiubu, comp., Xinhuashe wenjian ziliao xuanbian [A selection of documentary materials on the New China News Agency] (4 vols.; no place and no publisher, [1981-87?]); and Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun dangshi dangjian zhenggong jiaoyanshi and Guofang daxue dangshi dangjian zhenggong jiaoyanshi, comps., "Wenhua dageming" yanjiu ziliao [Research materials on "the Cultural Revolution"] (3 vols.; Beijing: publisher same as compiler, 1988; withdrawn from circulation). The second series of ZhongMei guanxi ziliao huibian [A collection of materials on Sino-American relations], comp. Shijie zhishi (2 vols.; Beijing: Shijie zhishi, 1960; "internal circulation"), reads like a "white paper" with a strong emphasis on materials between 1949 and 1958, virtually all from the public domain. Two new collections are helpful in putting early PRC foreign relations in a broad policy

framework: Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, comp., Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1992-); and Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi and Zhongyang dang'anguan "Dangde wenxian" bianjibu, comps., Gongheguo zouguodelu: jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian zhuanti xuanji (19491952) [The path travelled by the republic: a selection of important documents on special selection of important documents on special topics since the founding of the country (1949-1952)] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1991).

For the Korean War, Allen S. Whiting's China Crosses the Yalu: The Decision to Enter the Korean War (originally published 1960; Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968) was a path-breaking work that long stood as the single, indispensable work. His account of Chinese signalling from June to November 1950 depicted Beijing as neither Moscow-dominated nor irrational but acting essentially out of fear of "a determined, powerful enemy on China's doorstep" (159). A decade later Edward Friedman, "Problems in Dealing with an Irrational Power," in America's Asia: Dissenting Essays on AsianAmerican Relations, ed. Friedman and Mark Selden (New York: Pantheon, 1971), followed Whiting in stressing the defensive, calculated, and rational nature of Chinese policy and Beijing's "complex and differentiated view of American foreign policy" (212). The theme that China was essentially responding in Korea to a danger to its security again enjoyed prominence in Melvin Gurtov and Byong-Moo Hwang, China under Threat: The Politics of Strategy and Diplomacy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1980), chap. 2., although by this point other competing concerns domestic issues, divisions within the leadership, and strong internationalist elements in Beijing's justification for intervention-were beginning to creep into the picture and blur the interpretation.

The last few years have witnessed a flurry of publications, one after another broadening and enriching our understanding of Chinese policy and China's place in an international history of the early Cold War (while unfortunately neglecting the domestic dimensions of that conflict). Chen Xiaolu, "China's Policy Toward the United States, 1949-1955," and Jonathan D. Pollack, "The Korean War and Sino-American Relations," both in Sino-American Relations, 1945-1955, 184-97 and 213-37, were soon followed by

Mark A. Ryan, Chinese Attitudes Toward Nuclear Weapons: China and the United States During the Korean War (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1989); Hao Yufan and Zhai Zhihai, “China's Decision to Enter the Korean War: History Revisited," China Quarterly 121 (March 1990), 94-115, which were in turn overtaken by Chen Jian, "The Sino-Soviet Alliance and China's Entry into the Korean War" (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Cold War International History Project, 1992); Chen Jian, "China's Changing Aims during the Korean War, 1950-1951," The Journal of American-East Asian Relations 1 (Spring 1992), 8-41; Thomas J. Christensen, "Threats, Assurances, and the Last Chance for Peace: The Lessons of Mao's Korean War Telegrams," International Security 17 (Summer 1992), 122-54; and Michael H. Hunt, "Beijing and the Korean Crisis, June 1950June 1951," Political Science Quarterly 107 (Fall 1992), 453-78.

Treatment of Sino-Soviet relations during the initial phase of the Korean War was for a time sharply limited by the lack of documentation. Robert R. Simmons, The Strained Alliance: Peking, Pyongyang, Moscow and the Politics of the Korean War (New York: Free Press, 1975); Wilbur A. Chaffee, "Two Hypotheses of Sino-Soviet Relations as Concerns the Instigation of the Korean War," Journal of Korean Affairs 6:3-4 (1976-77), 1-13; and Nakajima Mineo, "The Sino-Soviet Confrontation: Its Roots in the International Background of the Korean War," Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 1 (January 1979), 19-47, were early efforts to explore that topic and especially the ways the war may have intensified strains that would eventually bring about the SinoSoviet split. Drawing on new materials, Kathryn Weathersby treats "The Soviet Role in the Early Phase of the Korean War: New Documentary Evidence," Journal of American-East Asian Relations 2 (Winter 1993), 425-58, and also presents Soviet archival materials on the war in issues 3, 5, and 6 of the Cold War International History Project Bulletin.

The most detailed and up-to-date accounts of the war's origins are to be found in Chen Jian, China's Road to the Korean War: The Making of the Sino-American Confrontation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), notable for its stress on the strong revolutionary streak in Mao's foreign

policy, and Sergei N. Goncharov, John W. Lewis, and Xue Litai, Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao, and the Korean War (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993), which depicts the two leaders as shrewd nationalists and resolute realpolitikers engaged in an intricate game of international chess with ideology counting for little.

Within the Chinese historical establishment, Yao Xu, Cong Yalujiang dao Banmendian: Weida de kangMei yuan Chao yuanChao zhanzheng [From the Yalu River to Panmunjom: the great war to resist America and aid Korea] (Beijing: Renmin, 1985; "internal circulation"); and Chai Chengwen and Zhao Yongtian, KangMei yuan Chao jishi [A record of resisting America and aiding Korea] (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi ziliao, 1987; "internal circulation"), were the first to deal in detail with the war. Their work was in turn improved on by Junshi jiaoxueyuan junshi lishi yanjiubu, comp., Zhongguo renmin zhiyuanjun kang Mei yuan Chao zhanshi [A battle history of resistance to America and aid to Korea by the Chinese people's volunteer army] (Beijing: Junshi jiaoxue, 1988; "internal circulation"); Chai Chengwen and Zhao Yongtian, Banmendian tanpan: Chaoxian zhanzheng juan [The Panmunjom talks: a volume on the Korean War] (Beijing: Jiefangjun, 1989); Ye Yumeng, Chubing Chaoxian: kangMei yuanChao lishi jishi [Sending troops to Korea: a historical record of the resistance to American and assistance to Korea] (Beijing: Beijing shiyue wenyi, 1990); Qi Dexue, Chaoxian zhanzheng juece neimu [The inside story of the Korean War decisions] (Shenyang: Liaoning daxue, 1991); "Dangdai Zhongguo" congshu bianji weiyuanhui, Kang Mei yuan Chao zhanzheng [The war to resist America and aid Korea] (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue, 1990); and Xu Yan, Diyici jiaoliang: kangMei yuan Chao zhanzheng de lishi huigu yu fansi [The first test of strength: a historical review and evaluation of the war to resist America and aid Korea] (Beijing: Zhongguo guangbo dianshi, 1990), the most complete and fully researched of the Chinese studies. Zhang Xi's unusually revealing "Peng Dehuai shouming shuaishi kangMei yuanChao de qianqian houhou" [The full story of Peng Dehuai's appointment to head the resistance to the United States and the assistance to Korea], Zhonggong dangshi ziliao 31 (1989), 111-59, is available in a translation by Chen

Jian, "Peng Dehuai and China's Entry into the Korean War," Chinese Historians 6 (Spring 1993), 1-29.

The Chinese military has made a major effort to tell its Korean War story not only in some of the general accounts noted above but also in a long string of memoirs. They include Peng Dehuai zishu bianjizu, ed., Peng Dehuai zishu [Peng Dehuai's own account] (Beijing: Renmin, 1981), which contains treatment of Korea prepared before contains treatment of Korea prepared before the Cultural Revolution and apparently without access to personal files; Du Ping, Zai zhiyuanjun zongbu [With the headquarters of the volunteer army] (Beijing: Jiefangjun, 1989); Yang Chengwu, Yang Chengwu huiyilu [Memoirs of Yang Chengwu] (2 vols.; Beijing: Jiefangjun, 1987 and 1990); Yang Dezhi, Weile heping [For the sake of peace] (Beijing: Changzheng, 1987); and Hong Xuezhi, KangMei yuan Chao zhanzheng huiyi [“Recollections of the war to resist U.S. aggression and aid Korea"] (Beijing: Jiefangjun wenyi, 1990). Peng's memoir is translated as Memoirs of a Chinese Marshal: The Autobiographical Notes of Peng Dehuai (1898-1924), trans. Zheng Longpu and ed. Sara Grimes (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1984).

There are abundant published source materials on the Korean conflict. Aside from Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao and Mao Zedong junshi wenxuan (both noted above), see Peng Dehuai zhuanji bianxiezu, comp., Peng Dehuai junshi wenxuan [A selection of Peng Dehuai writings on military affairs] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1988); and Zhongguo renmin kangMei yuanChao zonghui xuanchuanbu, comp., Weida de kang Mei yuan Chao yundong [The great resist-America, aid-Korea campaign] great resist-America, aid-Korea campaign] (Beijing: Renmin, 1954), a collection of documents on domestic mobilization. For a selection of Korean War materials translated from Jianguo yilai, volume 1, see Li Xiaobing et al., "Mao's Despatch of Chinese Troops into Korea: Forty-Six Telegrams, July-October 1950," Chinese Historians 5 (Spring 1992), 63-86; Li Xiaobing and Glenn Tracy, "Mao's Telegrams During the Korean War, October-December 1950," Chinese Historians 5 (Fall 1992), 65-85. Goncharov et al., Uncertain Partners, 22991, serves up a generous sampling of Chinese as well as Soviet documents on the origins of the war.

The subsequent Sino-American crisis

over the Taiwan Strait and Vietnam is getting increasing scrutiny by scholars exploiting fragmentary PRC revelations and documentation. Zhang Shu Guang, Deterrence and Strategic Culture: Chinese-American Confrontations, 1949-1958 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992), relates new information from Chinese sources to theoretical concerns with deterrence, calculated decision-making, and "learning" by policymakers. John W. Lewis and Xue Litai, China Builds the Bomb (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), reveals how Mao's public dismissal of the American nuclear threat was belied by a high-priority program to create a Chinese bomb.

A long list of special studies helps further fill out our picture of PRC policy: Chen Jian, "China and the First Indochina War, 1950-54," China Quarterly 133 (March 1993), 85-110; Qiang Zhai, "Transplanting the Chinese Model: Chinese Military Advisers and the First Vietnam War, 1950-1954," Journal of Military History 57 (October 1993), 689-715; Qiang Zhai, "China and the Geneva Conference of 1954," China Quarterly 129 (March 1992), 103-22; Gordon H. Chang and He Di, "The Absence of War in the U.S.-China Confrontation over Quemoy and Matsu in 1954-1955: Contingency, Luck, Deterrence?" American Historical Review 98 (December 1993), 1500-24; Xiaobing Li, "Chinese Intentions and 1954-55 Offshore Islands Crisis," Chinese Historians 3 (January 1990), 45-59; He Di, "The Evolution of the People's Republic of China's Policy toward the Offshore Islands," in The Great Powers in East Asia, 1953-1960 (cited above), 222-45; and Chen Jian, "China's Involvement with the Vietnam War, 196469," China Quarterly 142 (June 1995), 357387.

Our understanding of the PRC's Taiwan and Vietnam policies is, much like insights on Korea, in debt to the Chinese military. Xu Yan, Jinmen zhi zhan (19491959 nian) [The battle for Jinmen (19491959)] (Beijing: Zhongguo guangbo dianshi, 1992), and Zhongguo junshi guwentuan lishi bianxiezu, Zhongguo junshi guwentuan yuan Yue kangFa douzheng shishi [Historical facts about the struggle by the Chinese military advisory team to assist Vietnam and resist France] (Beijing: Jiefangjun, 1990; "internal circulation"), are but examples from what is likely to become an imposing body of work.

CCP LEADERS continued from page 131

how the situation has changed in the age of "reform and opening to the outside world." Insofar as the original works of CCP leaders are concerned, the archives storing them, especially Beijing's Central Archives, remain inaccessible to most scholars (both

Chinese and Western). If one carefully

examines the contents of the selected works of CCP leaders that have been compiled and published since the early 1980s (especially the editions "for internal circulation only"), however, it is easy to find that the policy of "reform and opening to the outside world" has made its stamp on them. Put simply, the "selected works" compiled and published in the 1980s and 1990s are more substantial, and, so far as their texts are concerned, more reliable than previous collections. To make this point clear, I will introduce and examine several major "selected works" compiled and published during this period.

1. Zhonggong zhongyang wenjian xuanji (Selected Documents of the CCP Central Committee). This documentary collection covers the period from 1921 to 1949 in two different editions: A fourteen volume internal edition published in the mid1980s, and an eighteen volume open edition published in the early 1990s.2 Both editions contain many previously unpublished materials. The open edition contains almost fifteen percent more documents than the earlier internal one (however, a few "sensitive documents" that were included in the internal edition disappeared from the open edition). The "quality" of some of the documents is impressive. For example, the Central Committee's "Instructions on Diplomatic Affairs," dated 18 August 1944, clearly reveals the CCP leadership's perception of international affairs as well as its calculation on how the Party should best deal with the perceived situation. These documents provide scholars with valuable information for understanding important decisions by the CCP leadership.

2. Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao (Mao Zedong's Manuscripts since the Founding of the People's Republic of China).3 The publication of this series began in late 1987, with eight volumes published by 1995, covering the period from October 1949 to December 1959. Although these volumes are marked "for internal cir

culation only," it is not difficult for scholars
outside of China to gain access to them. For

example, the Yenching Library and the li-
brary of John K. Fairbank Center at Harvard
University, the East Asian Library at Colum-
bia University, the East Asian Library at
Stanford University, the East Asian Library
at Toronto University, the Asian Section of
Library of Congress, and many other East
Library of Congress, and many other East
Asian libraries in North America have col-
lected various volumes of this set.

The documents published in this collec-
tion are of high historical value. They cover,
among other things, such important events as
Mao Zedong's visit to the Soviet Union in
1949-1950; China's participation in the Ko-
rean War in 1950-1953; Mao Zedong's di-
rection of the "Three-Antis" and "Five-Antis"
Movements in 1951-1952; Mao's and the
CCP leadership's management of relations
with the Soviet Union in the mid- and late
1950s; Mao's management of the Taiwan
Crisis and the potential confrontation with
the United States in 1958; Mao's handling of
the "Anti-Rightist Movement" and the "Great
Leap Forward" in 1957-1958; and Mao's
presentations at the Lushan Conference in
1959. In many places, the documents pub-
lished in this collection confirm the inner-

Party statements and instructions by Mao
divulged during the "Cultural Revolution"
years.4 But the majority of the documents
contained in this collection have never been
released in the past. Most of the documents
are published in their entirety; some, how-
ever, are published only in part. The quality
of the eight published volumes is uneven.
The first volume, which covers the period
from October 1949 to December 1950, is one
of the best. It offers, among other things, a
quite detailed coverage of Mao's visit to the
Soviet Union, as well as how the CCP lead-

ership made the decision to enter the Korean
War.5 Volume Four, covering the 1953-
1954 period, is, compared with other vol-
umes, extremely thin. As a whole, this col-
lection provides scholars with much fresh
information (compared with what we knew
in the past) and, therefore, must be regarded
as a basic reference for the study of Mao
Zedong, the Chinese revolution, and the his-
tory of the People's Republic of China.

3. Mao Zedong junshi wenxuan (Se-
lected Military Papers of Mao Zedong) and
Mao Zedong junshi wenji (A Collection of
Mao Zedong's Military Papers, 6 volumes).7
Mao Zedong junshi wenxuan, published in

the early 1980s, contains many previously unknown inner-Party instructions and telegrams by Mao, especially the telegraphic communications between Mao and Chinese field commanders during the early stage of China's military intervention in Korea (October-December 1950). Its circulation was highly restricted at first; after the mid-1980s, however, it became available to scholars outside of China through several channels, especially after it had been reprinted by a publisher in Hong Kong. The six-volume Mao Zedong junshi wenji was published in December 1993, on the 100th anniversary of Mao's birthday. Its coverage is extraordinarily uneven. The first five volumes, which cover the period from the late 1920s to 1949, include many documents released only for the first time. The sixth volume, which covers the period from 1949 to 1976, contains almost nothing new compared with the previously published Mao Zedong junshi wenji and Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao. In actuality, many documents concerning Mao's military activities during this postrevolution period published in the other two collections are deleted from this volume. This is a great disappointment for scholars who are interested in Mao's activities during the PRC period.

4. Mao Zedong waijiao wenxuan (Selected Diplomatic Papers of Mao Zedong),8 This collection focuses on Mao's diplomatic and strategic activities, emphasizing the post1949 period. Some of the documents published in this volume are of high historical value. For example, it has long been known to scholars that in the summer of 1958, a major dispute emerged between Beijing and Moscow in the wake of Moscow's proposal to establish a joint Chinese-Soviet submarine flotilla. However, it has been unclear to scholars how this dispute developed. The minutes of a talk between Mao Zedong and P. F. Yudin, the Soviet ambassador to China, on July 22, 1958, published in this issue of the CWIHP Bulletin, reveal the Chinese attitude, including Mao's reasoning underlying it, toward this question.9

5. Mao Zedong wenji (A Collection of Mao Zedong's Papers). 10 This collection publishes Mao's speeches, instructions, and telegrams not included in Mao Zedong xuanji. Among the quite impressive documents released are those about the CCP leadership's handling of the Xian Incident of 1936.

6. Mao Zedong nianpu (A Chronicle of

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