Peking Court resented and demanded that Japan should withdraw her forces from Formosa,-a territory belonging to China, and supported the demand by the despatch of a large Chinese army to Southern Formosa. The two hostile armies stood facing each other on the Island, and for a while war seemed to be inevitable. But through the friendly mediation of the British Minister, a settlement was finally effected. The action of Japan. was justified; Japan pledged to withdraw; China agreed to pay an indemnity of half a million taels. After this settlement the Liuchiu Prince still sent tribute missions to the Peking Court, against which the Japanese Minister entered vigorous protests. In 1879 General U. S. Grant, while on his tour around the world, advised that the Liuchiu Islands be partitioned between China and Japan. In 1881, however, the Liuchiu Islands were definitely recognized as being under the suzerainty of Japan. Thus, by a clever maneuver of diplomacy, Japan successfully asserted her claim of sovereignty over the Liuchiu Islands; and thus, through sheer ignorance and incompetency, China lost her claim of suzerainty. Commenting on this, H. B. Morse said:

"More significant even than this readiness to pay was the facile abandonment of the Liuchiu Islands, which had paid tributes for five centuries-a prelude to the successive lopping off of all the tributary dependencies, one after the other-Annam, Korea, Burma; and, more or less completed, Manchuria, Mongolia and Tibet." 25

The next Chinese dependency to bear the brunt of Western aggression was Ili, a part of the great northwestern territory of China. In 1866 a series of rebellions broke out in Ili and Kashgaria. Out of the turmoil emerged the Conquerer Yakub Beg, who established his rule over Kashgar and Yarkand. Simultaneously the Dungani Tribe rose and conquered the eastern part of the northwestern territory, overran the Chinese

province of Kansu and menaced Shensi and Hupeh. In 1867, Tso Tsung-tang, a veteran general of the Taiping rebellion, was commissioned to pacify the region. He first drove back the Dungani Tribe from Hupeh and Shensi, and then he advanced to Kansu where he took Suchow after a continuous seige of three years. During this time he made his troops grow crops and thus fed his own army. Having captured Suchow, he advanced straight on and conquered city after city. By 1878, he had the entire territory pacified and brought under the control of the Chinese Government.

Prior to this, and taking advantage of the rebellions, Russia in 1871 moved troops into Kuldja and occupied Ili, promising to restore the territory to China as soon as China should be able to assume the functions of a territorial sovereign. So when Tso Tsung-tang had successfully pacified the rebellions, the Chinese Government demanded the restoration of Ili. In 1879, Chungchow was sent to Russia, and there he negotiated the treaty of Livadia, signed on September 15, 1879 The western and richer part of Ili was to be ceded to Russia. The strategic passes of Tienshan were to be also surrendered to Russia. Five million roubles were, in addition, to be paid for the restoration of the rest of Ili.2 "Such conditions might be imposed after defeat in war, but never granted as the result of negotiations.' Chungchow was condemned to death and his life was saved only through the gracious interposition of Queen Victoria.

26

The next year, 1880, Marquis Tseng, the son of the illustrious General Tseng Kuo-fan of the Taiping rebellion, was sent to Russia to open the negotiation again. for the restoration of Ili. He succeeded in signing, on February 24, 1881, the Treaty of St. Petersburg 28 with a protocol 29 and supplementary regulations for inland trade.30 The Chinese authority in Ili was reëstablished (Article 1) 31 but the western part of Ili was ceded to

32

Russia. The Takkas Valley and all the passes between Ili and Kashgaria and the parts of Eastern Turkestan, ceded to Russia by Chungchow, were all regained, Russia still, however, retaining the western part of Ili, formerly ceded to them by Chungchow.33 The Russians were to have the right to trade in Mongolia and Ili free from payment of duties,34 but the Russian caravans were to stop at the frontier of China proper, whereas Chungchow had allowed them to march as far inland as Hankow.35 An increased indemnity, however, of nine million roubles was to be paid. Thus, the western parts of Ili were lost to Russia, and the eastern and greater part thereof was rescued from the grasp of Russia only by the diplomatic genius of Marquis Tseng, and martial zeal of General Tso Tsung-tang.

The third dependency that was to pass out of the control of China was Annam. Annam was conquered by China and became a vassal during the Han Dynasty. In 1407 it was again conquered by Emperor Yunglo of the Ming Dynasty, and this time it was annexed to China. As an integral part of the Empire, it was administered in the Chinese manner. It was divided into fifteen fus, forty-one chows, and two hundred and eighty hsiens.36 But twenty years later it reverted to the old condition of a vassal state. Ever since then, there had been no evidence in existence that it had failed to receive the investiture of its King from China or send a mission of tribute once in four years.37

During China's second war with Great Britain and her French ally, Annam began to break away from China. In 1858, Erance and Spain, because of successive murders of their missionaries, sent an expedition to Annam. The war that ensued continued for three years and a half, and terminated with the Treaty of Saigon June 5, 1862. Spain was to receive a part of the indemnity of four million dollars; and France

to obtain the cession of Saigon, three provinces of Cochin-China and the Island of Pulo Condor.

The next step in the alienation of Annam from China was the Treaty of Alliance between France and Annam. concluded on March 15, 1874. France recognized the complete independence of Annam and pledged to protect the integrity of the same. Thus, by this pretext, France supplanted China as overlord, and Annam changed her allegiance.

The last step in the control of Annam was the establishment of the French protectorate by the Treaty of June 6, 1884. Annam recognized and accepted the protectorate of France. France controlled the relations of all foreign Powers, including China, with the Annamese. Government.38 Cochin-China was to be enlarged. Tonkin was to be administered by French residents. Annam was still to be under the Annamese except the customs and public works. The Red River was to be guarded by French military posts.

Having thus clinched her protectorate over Annam, France saw that the only obstacle standing in the way of the complete consummation of absorption was China. In 1881, China protested through Marquis Tseng at Paris against the French recognition of the complete independence of Annam and asserted her claim of suzerainty. She also reënforced her protest by the despatch of Imperial troops who coöperated in the Red River Basin with the Black Flags, the remnants of the Taiping rebels, who had been guarding the Red River ever since 1873. In order to remove this obstacle, France at last resorted to war. On March 15, 1883, a war credit of 5,500,000 francs was voted and an expedition was thereafter sent to the Red River. Several engagements took place, and while the Chinese made a stubborn stand, the French were at last successful in capturing the important centers of the Red River, Hanoi, Bontag and Bacninh.

At this juncture, and in order to avoid further bloodshed, the convention of Tientsin was entered upon, May 11, 1884, between Li Hung-chang representing China and Commandant Fournier representing France.39 France engaged to respect and protect the Chinese frontiers bordering on Tonkin (Article 1). China was to withdraw her garrisons from Tonkin and to respect the treaties between France and Annam (Article 2). France was to renounce her demand for indemnity (Article 3), but in return was to receive the privilege of frontier trade between Annam and China (Article 3).

An unfortunate misunderstanding, however, soon occurred, which brought on the war between France and China. Li Hung-chang and Commandant Fournier had arranged that the Chinese Imperial garrisons should withdraw from the Kwangsi border within twenty days, that is, by June 6, and from the Yunnan frontier within forty days, that is, by June 26, but the French advanced to Langson before the lapse of the time allowed for evacuation and were severely repulsed at Baclé by the Chinese garrisons who had not yet received instruction for withdrawal.

Thereupon the French demanded an indemnity of 250,000,000 francs but later reduced the amount to 80,000,000 francs. In July Admiral Courbet sailed with his fleet into Foochow Harbor with the cordial welcome of the Chinese authorities, but on August 23, and without previous warning, attacked a Chinese fleet lying in the same harbor, and practically annihilated it. The Chinese Government thereupon declared war. On sea France was victorious, but on land China stood her ground. On March 28, 1885, the Chinese recaptured Langson.

On June 9, 1885, the treaty of peace was signed, virtually reaffirming the convention of Tientsin of May 11, 1884.40 The French engaged to respect the Chinese southern boundary between China and Tonkin (Arti