cle 1). China agreed to respect the treaties between Annam and France (Article 2). The privilege of frontier trade between Tonkin and China was granted Article 5). Trade regulations between Tonkin and Yunnan, Kwangsi, and Kwangtung were to be made by a joint commission (Article 6). China was to ask France for assistance, both in personnel and material, in the construction of railways between Tonkin and Yunnan, but this was not to be construed as to give exclusive right in favor of France (Article 7).*1

Closely following the alienation of Annam came the loss of Burma, a vassal state conquered by the Mongols during the reign of Kublai Khan in 1284 A.D.,42 and which sent missions of tribute once every ten years. As early as 1862, Great Britain seized lower Burma just at the time when France seized Cochin-China. In 1886, one year after the French occupancy of Annam and the subsequent recognition by China of the transfer of suzerainty, Great Britain completed her seizure of Upper Burma and won the recognition by China of the British rule over the whole of Burma by the convention signed on July 24, 1886.43 Burma was still allowed to send her decennial tribute mission to Peking, Article 1). China recognized British authority and rule in Burma: "China agrees that, in all matters whatever appertaining to the authority and rule which England is now exercising in Burma, England shall be free to do whatever she deems fit and proper." Article 2).45

In 1890 the British protectorate over Sikkim was recognized by the convention of March 17, 1890.46 The boundary between Tibet and Sikkim was defined (Article 1). The British protectorate over Sikkim was recognized by China (Article 2): "It is admitted that the British Government, whose protectorate over the Sikkim State is hereby recognized, has direct and exclusive control over the internal administration and foreign relations of that

state, and except through and with the permission of the British Government, neither the ruler of the State nor any of its officers shall have official relations of any kind, formal or informal, with any other country." 47

The last group of dependencies to be severed from the control of China were the Pascadores, Formosa and Korea. Korea was a vassal state of China for many centuries. In 1637 she was conquered by the Manchus. Ever since then, for more than two centuries the relation of Korea as a vassal state to China had never been questioned. In 1876, however, Japan made her first move which led to her subsequent control of that land. She covenanted with Korea on February 26 of that year, recognizing the full independence of Korea, thus ignoring the suzerainty of China.48 Article 1 read: "Chosen (Korea) being an independent state, enjoys the same sovereign rights as does Japan." 49 On December 4, 1884, a violent riot broke out. The Chinese Resident General Yuan Shih-kai, who later became President of China, led his Chinese troops and proceeded to protect the Imperial Palace of the Korean Emperor, but upon his arrival he found the palace occupied by Japanese troops. Thereupon, Yuan Shih-kai attacked the Japanese guards. A general commotion ensued, amidst which the Japanese fought their way out from Seoul to Chemulpo, where they boarded a Japanese steamer.

To settle this incident, the convention of Tientsin was signed on April 18, 1885,50 by Li Hung-chang representing China and by Ito representing Japan. Both agreed to withdraw their troops from Korea within four months. The Korean King was to be asked to employ military instructors of a third Power to drill a sufficient force for the preservation of order and peace. "In case of any disturbance of a grave nature occurring in Korea which necessitates the respective countries or

either of them to send the troops to Korea, it is hereby understood that they shall give, each to the other, previous notice in writing of their intention so to do, and that after the matter is settled they shall withdraw their troops and not further station them there." 51

In March, 1894, another riot broke out in Korea led. by the Tonghaks,-a Korean political party with the platforms of reform and expulsion of all foreigners. "Down with the Japanese and all foreigners," was one of their watchwords.52 During the same month another event occurred which aggravated the situation. One of the leaders of the riot of December, 1884, by the name of Kin Ok-Kim, who was in refuge in Japan, was decoyed to Shanghai in March, 1894, and there treacherously murdered by a Korean. At the request of the Korean King, both the murdered man and the murderer were conveyed to Korea, where the former was designated as a rebel and his dead body decapitated and quartered, while the murderer was set free as a national hero.

The Korean King appealed to the Peking Court for protection and help in the face of the Tonghak rebellion and the general excitement over the murder of Kin Ok-Kim. To this appeal the Chinese Government responded by the despatch of troops to Korea. In compliance with the Treaty of Tientsin, April 18, 1884, notice was given to Japan, but this did not satisfy Japan. She charged China with breach of faith for not giving notice before the despatch of troops, though she herself sent even a larger body of soldiers. Meanwhile, the Tonghaks had been put down by Korean soldiers. Thus, although the cause of the trouble was already eliminated, the two hostile armies stood face to face in Korea watching each other.

China suggested a simultaneous withdrawal of troops and a mutual refrainment from any interference in the internal administration of Korea, to which Japan ob

jected. As a counter move, she suggested that China should coöperate with her in the reform of the internal administration of Korea, from which China dissented. Meanwhile an event occurred which led to the declaration of war on both sides. A British steamer by the name of Kowsheng transported Chinese troops to Korea under the convoy of Chinese cruisers and flying a British flag. It was stopped at Prince Jerome Gulf by a Japanese squadron. Upon examination of the papers, the Japanese signaled "follow me," which the Chinese troops on board the ship refused to obey. The Naniwa then hoisted the red flag and opened fire. The Kowsheng was sunk in less than half an hour, and most of the Chinese soldiers on board were drowned. War was thereupon declared by both countries.

Let us endeavor to find the real motives of Japan which brought about this war. China had already consented to withdraw; the Tonghaks had been suppressed; and yet Japan still refused to be satisfied. She insisted that China should coöperate with her in the reformation of Korea, when it was an open question as to the legal and ethical rights of Japan in enforcing reforms on another country. The real motives, as we find, however, appeared to be that Japan wished to incite a war with China at that juncture, so that she could achieve her own position of equality. For up to this time she had been making desperate endeavors to secure the abrogation of extraterritoriality and tariff restraint from the Treaty Powers, and so far she had only succeeded in gaining the consent of Great Britain on June 16, 1884. She needed a demonstration of her military prowess so that she could convince the rest of the Powers that she was entitled to a complete recovery of her judicial and tariff autonomy. Added to this was the motive that the integrity of Korea was necessary for the safety of Japan. In fighting for the independence of Korea, Japan was fighting for her own inde

pendence and integrity. This was verified by the testimony of a Japanese diplomatic representative in Europe:

"This, at least, I can tell you for certain, we neither can nor will leave Korea again until our aim has been obtained in one way or another. We are fighting in Korea for our own future-I might also say for our independence. Once let Korea fall into the hands of at European power, and our independence will be threat

ened." "53

The victories of Japan both on land and sea are known to the world. The war was finally concluded by the Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed on April 17, 1895.54 The independence of Korea was fully recognized by China (Article 1). The Liaotung peninsula, Formosa and the Pascadores were to be ceded to Japan (Article 2). An indemnity, of 200,000,000 Kuping taels was to be paid (Article 4). All previous treaties between China and Japan were to be terminated and new treaties, based on "the treaties, conventions and the regulations now subsisting between China and the European powers," were to be concluded (Article 6).57 The most favored nation treatment was to be accorded to Japan and her subjects (Article 6). Shashih, Chung-King, Soochow, and Hangchow were to be opened to trade (Article 6).58

Hardly had the treaty of Shimonoseki been made than the Three-Power intervention occurred. Russia, Germany and France each presented identical notes, mutatis mutandis, to the Japanese Government advising the latter not to occupy the Liaotung Peninsula in perpetuity. Consequently the convention was signed on November 8, 1895,59 for the retrocession of Liaotung, in return for which China paid an additional indemnity of 30,000,000 Kuping taels.

A year later, in pursuance of Article 6 of the Treaty of Shimonoseki providing for the annulment of all previous treaties between China and Japan and for the