tended her influence as far as the geographical setting would allow her. Toward the North she extended her civilization to the Mongols and the Manchus. Toward the West she carried her civilization to Chinese Turkestan, Sinkiang and Tibet. Toward the South she sowed the seeds of culture in Burma, Annam and Siam. On the East she extended her civilization to Korea and Japan.

This superiority, however, achieved in geographical isolation, soon resulted in self-complacency and pride. Supreme in the Far East, she had no rivals. As a result, she became self-satisfied and unprogressive. She remained so until Western contact woke her from her lethargy. Thus we can clearly understand why, when the West came knocking at the door, she was proud and regarded all Westerners as barbarians and subjects of vassal states. We can also understand why she refused to have her tranquillity and isolation disturbed by the intrusions of the West.

The Portuguese were the first to arrive. They landed in 1517 at St. John's Island in South China, and later in 1557, they occupied the present city of Macao, which became the chief trading port of South China-before the rise of Hongkong. Next to the Portuguese came their rivals, the Spaniards, who crossed over from Manila in 1575. Then came the Dutch in 1622 who occupied the Island of Formosa until 1661, when they were driven out by the conquering Koxinga. In 1655 they sent an embassy to Peking, asking for privileges of trade. They performed all the rites required of them-kneeling and prostration (kowtow)-and also offered tribute as from a vassal state. In spite of their efforts, however, they only obtained the privilege of coming to trade once in eight years and each time not exceeding a hundred men. About the same time, in 1653, Russia also came over by land and asked for commercial privileges, but as the embassy refused to kowtow, the mission was not granted an audience.

The first treaty of China was commonly called the Treaty of Nerchinsk, August 27, 1689. It was made in consequence of the Russian construction of some forts at Albazin and Karmarskai-Astrog which the Chinese thought was an invasion of their territory and for which reason they attacked the forts and demolished the one at Albazin. Thereupon, a border war ensued, with alternating triumphs for both sides. This treaty signed at Nerchinsk ended the war. The rivers Rerbetchi and Ergoné were made boundaries. The fortress built at Albazin was to be demolished. Extradition and extraterritoriality of a primitive character were provided. The right to travel with passports and to trade was reciprocally given.

Subsequently, further treaties were made with Russia. On October 21, 1727, the treaty of Kiakhta was concluded. The boundary at and near Kiakhta was defined. Frontier trade was regulated and jurisdictional differences were settled. A Russian embassy was permitted to reside in Peking, and four youths and two adults were permitted to study the Chinese language and four priests to practice their cult. This treaty of Kiakhta was amended in 1768, regulating more specifically frontier extradition and criminal jurisdiction. In 1792 a further convention was signed by the Governor of Irkutsk and the Chinese frontier officers, regulating commerce at the border.

These treaties with Russia did not open China up in\ any way, either for foreign trade or diplomatic intercourse. What the Russians obtained through these treaties was trade privileges at the frontier and the right of residence for the Russian Embassy at Peking. Hence, in 1806, when the Russian ships arrived at Canton for trade, the Imperial order decreed that Russia, having the privilege of trading at the land frontier, was not allowed to trade by sea, and, therefore, excluded from coastal trade of China. Later, Admiral Count Putiation was

commissioned as Russian Envoy and came to Peiho and asked for the privilege of maritime trade and upon being refused there, he went down to Hongkong in 1857 and joined the Allied diplomats of England and France and sought for maritime trade privileges under the ægis of the Allied forces, then in operation against China during the second war between Great Britain and China.

So far none of the European States was able to effect the opening of China. The task finally fell on the shoulders of Great Britain. Not without initial rebuffs and adverses, however, did Great Britain perform the task. In 1793 Lord Macartney came to Taku, and thence he was convoyed to Peking in boats and carts bearing the inscription "Ambassador bearing tribute from the country of England." His mission resulted in failure. Again in 1816 Lord Amherst went to Peking, but as he refused to kowtow, and to be hurried to an Imperial audience early in the morning immediately upon his arrival, he had to depart in disappointment.

Rebuffed but not discouraged, Great Britain persisted in her task. In 1834, she abolished the monopoly enjoyed by the East India Company and instituted free trade in Canton; and, to supervise British trade, three superintendents were appointed, of which Lord Napier was chief. The latter came to China with the supreme resolve to open up China and to assert national equality. He came to Canton from Macao without permit from the Chinese local authorities, which was required at that time; and besides, he intended to deliver a letter and not a petition to the Viceroy. His action so incensed the Viceroy that he was refused a conference until he had retired to Macao and come up in accordance with the established rule, which Lord Napier refused to do. A deadlock between the Viceroy and Lord Napier ensued, resulting in the stoppage of British trade. Meanwhile, malarial fever overtook Lord Napier, which com

pelled him to retire to Macao, where he died on October 11. 1834.

After the death of Lord Napier, the superintendents who succeeded him adopted a quiescent policy, complying generally with the regulations of the Canton authorities. But in 1836 Captain Eliot was appointed chief superintendent, and with his advent, events took a sharp turn, leading to the first war between China and Great Britain (1840-1842).

In 1838 Lin Tse-Hsi was appointed Imperial High Commissioner at Canton. He came with the Imperial Commission to exterminate the opium traffic which foreign traders, mainly the British, had been illegally carrying on with the connivance of corrupt Chinese officials. His policy was first to destroy all the opium in the possession of foreign traders, and then to safeguard the future by requiring them to deposit bonds as a pledge that they would not deal in opium thereafter. He therefore demanded the surrender of all the opium in possession of the foreign communities.2 Upon refusal of the foreign communities to deliver up the opium, he declared martial law and put the British factory and community under military quarantine. He made the blockade so effective that, in a few days, deprived of food and other supplies, the foreign community was on the verge of starvation. Consequently, Eliot yielded on March 27, 1839, and surrendered the stock of opium. amounting to 20,291 chests, whereupon the blockade was lifted.

Immediately thereafter, Captain Eliot ordered his countrymen to prepare to leave in a body; and also announced that he would ask the Queen to exact due indemnity for the opium so arbitrarily seized. On May 24, 1839, the whole British community moved from Canton to Macao, where Captain Eliot waited for instructions from home.

Meanwhile, another event transpired which made war inevitable. A party of British sailors, while on the Kowloon side of the Hongkong anchorage, murdered a Chinese named Lin Wei-li during the course of a riotous search for intoxicating liquor. Commissioner Lin demanded an immediate redress by the surrender of the British murderer. Having obtained no satisfaction, to enforce his demands, he moved his forces to Heungshan, and issued two orders on August 15, 1839, one cutting off the supplies of the British in Macao and the other ordering all Chinese servants to leave their British masters, whereupon the British moved from Macao to Hongkong. On October 25 he issued a peremptory order for the surrender of the murderer, and three days later threatened to blockade Hongkong and to effect the arrest of the murderer himself. On November 3, 1839, the first naval battle was fought in Chuenpi, which marked the beginning of the first war between China and Great Britain.

The issues of the war were quite clear. On the part of the Chinese, opium was the great issue. To exterminate the opium evil was the supreme aim of the war. The jurisdiction over criminals of the homicide class was a subsidiary issue. On the part of the British, however, reparation for the loss of opium, the granting of better trade privileges and the recognition of national equality were the primary causes, while opium was a mere incident.

4

The British won the war. As a result, the treaty of Nanking was signed on August 29, 1842. Five treaty ports were opened,-Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai. Hongkong was ceded in perpetuity to Great Britain. An indemnity of twenty-one million dollars was paid. Equal status in diplomatic correspondence was to be observed. Tariff was to be uniform and fair. A supplementary treaty of October 8, 1843, was subsequently signed, providing for a conventional tariff of