five per cent ad valorem and extra-territoriality." Following the British, the Americans signed the Treaty of Commerce on July 3, 1844, and the French, on October 24, 1844. Belgium secured trade privileges by an Imperial rescript of July 25, 1845; Sweden and Norway signed, on March 20, 1847, a Treaty of Commerce, virtually the same as the American Treaty of 1844.

The first war with Great Britain accomplished only a part of what the British had set out to do. It opened up five ports of South China to the trade of the world. It provided for a semblance of national equality in diplomatic dealings. But still it failed to open up the whole of China, especially the Yangtze Valley, which was the goal of British merchants. It further failed to provide for diplomatic dealings direct with the Peking court. All these were left to be accomplished by the second war between Great Britain and China (1858-1860).

As the first war was not decisive, the Chinese were not convinced that they were inferior to the Westerners, nor were they willing to welcome Western intercourse. thus imposed on them. They still cherished hopes of keeping Occidentals at a distance and indulged in thoughts of Oriental superiority. Thus when the opening of Canton was due, the Cantonese resisted, and, as a result, a violent riot took place. The entry into Canton was therefore postponed, but it was not waived. In the next year it was definitely postponed to 1849. But when the time came for opening, the Cantonese still obstinately refused to comply with the agreement.

During this interval, the Cantonese became more and more hostile. They felt they were grossly wronged by the British who forced the opium traffic on them. They resented deeply the intrusion and compulsory intercourse. of the unwelcome Western barbarian. They entertained. the hope that, as soon as a chance should offer itself, they would expel all Western disturbers of their peace.

The prevailing sentiment of that time can be well discerned in the following extract of a placard, the like of which was quite common during these years of irritation and excitement.R

"If the barbarians make a single move, then sound the tocsin, in every place, and, united in mind and strength, at one beat of the drum we will take them, and absolutely kill every one of the barbarian rebels, and not leave a blade of grass an inch high, nor allow the creepers to spread."

On the other hand, the British, on account of their victory, became quite arrogant and insolent. They cast aside their former respect for the wonders of Chinese civilization and openly asserted that they would, and could, thereafter dictate their demands to the Chinese. In a letter to his plenipotentiary instructing the latter to protest against the growing hostile feeling of the Cantonese, Lord Palmerston used the following language:

"Now they appear to be encouraging and exciting among the people of Canton hostile feelings towards British subjects; but let them not deceive themselves. The forbearance which the British Government has hitherto displayed arises, not from a sense of weakness, but from the consciousness of superior strength. The British Government well knows that, if occasion required it, a British military force would be able to destroy the town of Canton, not leaving one single house standing, and could thus inflict the most signal chastisement upon the people of that city."

Chafing under the dissatisfaction of the existing arrangements, a movement was put on foot to effect a revision of treaties. In accordance with the American and French Treaties, the revision was to take place at the end of twelve years, 11 that is, in 1856. While the Treaty with Britain did not provide for revision, the operation of

the most favored nation clause 12 would nevertheless give the British the same right. They first attempted to induce Commissioner Yeh of Canton to enter into a treaty revision, but the latter declined. They then went North, first to Nanking and from thence to Peiho, but at each turn they were told that no material or radical modifications could be made and that the only channel of diplomatic intercourse and hence of treaty revision was Commissioner Yeh of Canton.

Baffled by this opposition, they became convinced that the only way to bring about a treaty revision was to use force, or, in other words, to make another war. Events soon developed that excuses were found. On February 29, 1856, Auguste Chapdelaine was executed by the local Chinese authority of Kwangsi after a judicial trial. He was convicted of the crime of coming out of the five treaty ports where the foreigners were supposed to be confined, and also of stirring up rebellions in Kwangsi against the government. The French envoy protested. He pointed out that in accordance with the treaty provision regarding extra-territoriality, Frenchmen should be punished only by French authorities.18

As no satisfaction could be obtained, France was ready to declare war. Availing herself of the coöperation with Great Britain in the Crimean War (1854-1856) which had just drawn to its close at that time, she proposed to Great Britain that the two Allies should continue their coöperation and make war in common on China, to which the British readily assented. The primary motive of the French was to protect Catholic missionaries in China; that of Great Britain, to obtain treaty revision.

Shortly after another incident occurred, which gave the British an added impetus to enter upon the second war. On October 8, 1856, the lorcha Arrow was boarded by Chinese soldiers, and twelve of the Chinese crew were taken away. The Arrow was one of those boats owned by the Chinese but flying a British flag

under registration at Hongkong, engaged generally in the coasting trade but not infrequently in smuggling. The British at once protested. They claimed that the Arrow, flying a British flag, was British territory and that arrests could be made thereon only with the consent of the British. The Chinese on the other hand, contended that the lorcha was a Chinese boat and that they were only seeking a notorious robber among the Chinese crew. It was later discovered that the lorcha's license under British protection had, according to the law of Hongkong, expired eleven days before the incident, which meant, of course, that the lorcha was no more under the British protection.1 To this the British made the rebuttal that it was impossible for the lorcha to reach Hongkong in time for the renewal of the annual license when engaged in coasting trade.

The war would have commenced earlier, had not the Indian Mutiny intervened on May 13, 1857, which necessitated the temporary diversion of the British land forces. Naval warfare, however, began in the summer of 1857. Thus arose the second war between China and Great Britain, and this time France was an added factor in the contest.15

The Allies won the war. As a consequence, Great Britain concluded the treaty of Tientsin, June 26, 1858, France, on June 27, Russia, on June 13, and the United States, on June 18. These four treaties were, in general, approximately the same, and, because of the most favored nation clause, the privileges conceded to one were extended to all the others. We shall, therefore, take the British Treaty as the model which has determined diplomatic relations of China with the Western world ever since. The treaty of Nanking of August 29, 1842, was confirmed (Article 1).18 The trade regulations of July, 1843, were abrogated and likewise the supplementary treaty of October, 1843 (Article 1). "His Majesty the Emperor of China hereby agrees, that the Ambassador,

Minister, or other diplomatic agents so appointed by her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain may reside with his family and establishment, permanently at the Capital, or may visit it occasionally at the option of the British Government" (Article 3). Rights of diplomatic immunities as established in international usages were accorded to the British (Article 4) and the Chinese representative reciprocally. Religious tolerance was provided. “British merchant ships shall have authority to trade upon the great river (Yangtze)." Chinkiang was to be opened at once to foreign trade; Hankow and Kiukiang were later selected as the other trade ports (Article 10); Newchang, Chefoo, Taiwan, Swatow and Kiungchow were to be opened to foreign trade (Article 11). "All questions in regard to rights, whether of property or person, arising between British subjects, shall be subject to the jurisdiction of the British authorities" (Article 15). Tariff revision might be demanded at the end of ten years (Article 27). Transit duties were fixed at the rate of two and one-half per cent ad valorem-half of the tariff rate. Most favored nation treatment of the most comprehensive kind was accorded: "The British Government and the subjects are hereby confirmed in all privileges, immunities, and advantages conferred on them by previous treaties; and it is hereby expressly stipulated that the British Government and its subjects will be allowed free and equal participation in all privileges, immunities, and advantages that may have been or may be hereafter granted by his Majesty the Emperor of China to the government or subjects of any other nation" (Article 54). A supplementary agreement was signed at Shanghai on November 8, 1858, regulating trade and fixing the tariff at five percent, ad valorem with a free list.

The ratification of the British, French and Russian Treaties was to be effected at Peking within one year from the date of signature. Only the American Treaty did not so provide. The French and the British accord