The

the Augustan Age is synonymous with "golden age." chief cities of the empire were adorned with noble buildings, — temples, theaters, porticoes, baths (§ 521). Augustus tells us in a famous inscription that in one year he himself began the rebuilding of eighty-two temples, and of Rome he said, "I found it brick and left it marble."

The details of much of his work will appear more fully in Chapter III (§ 496 ff.).

476. The Worship of the Dead Augustus. At his death, by decree of the Senate, divine honors were paid Augustus. Temples were erected in his honor, and he was worshiped as a god. Impious as such worship seems to us, it was natural to the Romans. It was connected with the ideas of ancestor worship in each family, and with the general worship of ancient heroes, and was a way of recognizing the emperor as "the father of all his people." The practice was adopted for the successors of Augustus, and this worship of dead emperors soon became the most general and widespread religious rite in the Roman world, as well as a mighty bond of union.1

In this connection it is interesting to remember that when the reign of Augustus was a little more than half gone, there was born in a manger in an obscure hamlet of a distant corner of the Roman world a child who became the founder of a religion which, after some centuries, was to replace the worship of emperors and all other religious faiths of the old pagan world.

FOR FURTHER READING. On the work of Augustus: Firth's Augustus; Capes' Early Empire, ch. i; Pelham's Outlines of Roman History, bk. v, ch. iii; Bury's Roman Empire, 1-149. For other material and for the account by Augustus himself, see page 457.

EXERCISES. (1) Catchword review, 47-27 A.D. (2) Add the battles of this period to the list for drill. (3) Review the growth of Roman citizenship from legendary times to the death of Augustus (see index for references). (4) Review the theme sentences throughout the volume at the heads of chapters or of divisions of chapters, and note how they apply to the historical movements.

1 Read Capes, Early Empire, 41-44.

CHAPTER II.

THE EMPIRE OF THE FIRST THREE CENTURIES –

AUGUSTUS TO DIOCLETIAN.

(The Story of the Emperors.)

477. Character of the Treatment of this Period. With the Age of Augustus the history of the Empire ceases to be centered in the city of Rome. Nor is it centered even in the emperors. Much depends, of course, upon the ruler; but the great movements go on in a good deal the same way, no matter who sits upon the throne. Our study will not concern itself with the gossip of the court. For the next three centuries our interest lies not so much in a narrative of any kind as in a topical survey of the institutions of the Empire, upon which, in large measure, modern society rests.

Such a topical study is given in the next chapter. But, since it is convenient to refer to the reigns as dates, a brief summary of the emperors is given first. This chapter is for reading and reference, not for careful study at this stage. In review, after studying the topical treatment, important names and dates in the summary may be memorized.1

I. TWO CENTURIES OF ORDER, 31 B.C.-180 A.D.

A. THE JULIAN CAESARS.

478. Augustus, 31 B.C.-14 A.D.: a Summary. The work of Augustus is discussed in detail elsewhere; but a brief outline is added here. Augustus fixed the imperial constitution, establishing despotism under Republican forms (§§ 496-498). He fixed

1 Students who wish to read more fully on the narrative of the first two centuries may use Capes' Early Empire, 44-180, and Age of the Antonines, 1-135, or Bury, Roman Empire (Student's Series). Other material can be found in the references named on page 457. On the third century there is no good brief treatment. The narrative chapters in Gibbon's Decline and Fall may be used.

the boundaries of the empire (meeting with a check from the Germans in the defeat of the Teutoberg Forest, § 507). He restored order, promoted prosperity, carried out a census of the empire, constructed many vast public works. His age was the "golden age" of Latin literature. He "found Rome brick and left it marble." During his reign, Christ was born.

479. Tiberius, 14-37 A.D. Augustus was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius, whom he had adopted as his heir. Tiberius was stern, morose, suspicious; but he was also an able, conscientious ruler. The nobles of the capital conspired against him, and were punished cruelly. The populace of Rome, too, hated him because he restricted the distribution of grain and refused to amuse them with gladiatorial sports. To keep the capital in order, Tiberius brought the praetorians (§ 473, note) into the city and encouraged a system of paid spies, so that the people of Rome with some reason looked upon him as a gloomy tyrant. He also made the law of treason (majestas) apply to words against the emperor, as well as to acts of violence. But in the provinces he was proverbial for fairness, kindness, and good government. On one occasion, after a great earthquake in Asia Minor, he rebuilt twelve cities which had been destroyed there. In this reign occurred the crucifixion of Christ.

480. Caligula, 37-41. - In the absence of nearer heirs, Tiberius adopted his grandnephew Caligula. This prince had been a promising youth, but, crazed by power, he became a capricious madman, with gleams of fero

1 The great authority for this period is the Roman historian, Tacitus. But Tacitus is affected by the prejudice of the Roman nobles, and he paints Tiberius in colors much too dark. (See extracts in Munro's Source Book, 149-152.) The worst cruelties of Tiberius's reign were due, too, to his misplaced trust in Sejanus, his minister and commander of the praetorians. For a time this infamous miscreant virtually ruled the capital while Tiberius, in disgust, withdrew to his beautiful retreat on the island of Capri, near the Bay of Naples, to manage the affairs of the empire at large. Finally Sejanus plotted against the life of Tiberius, and was himself put to death. The abuse of the system of spies was due to the corruption of society in the capital. Read the extract in Munro, pages 151-152.

cious humor. "Would that the Romans had all one neck!" he exclaimed, wishing that he might behead them all at one stroke. His deeds were a series of crimes and extravagant follies. The wild-beast fights of the amphitheater and the gladiatorial shows fascinated him strangely. It is said that sometimes, to add to the spectacle, he ordered spectators to be thrown to the animals, and he entered the arena himself as a gladiator, to win the applause of the people whom he hated. After four years, he was murdered by his guard.

481. Claudius, 41-54. - Caligula had named no successor. For a moment the Senate hoped to restore the old Republic; but the praetorians set up as emperor Claudius, the uncle of Caligula. Claudius was a timid, gentle, awkward, well-meaning scholar. Much of the time he was under the influence of unworthy favorites. Still his reign is famous for a great extension of citizenship to provincials and for legislation to protect slaves against cruel masters. The Roman conquest of southern Britain took place in this reign (§ 508).2

482. Nero, 54-68. — Claudius was succeeded by his stepson Nero, a boy of sixteen. Nero had been trained by the philosopher Seneca (§ 525), and for two thirds of his reign he was ruled by this great thinker and by other wise ministers. Indeed, the young emperor cared little for affairs of government, but was fond of art, and ridiculously vain of his skill in music and poetry. After some years he began to withdraw himself from the influence of his good advisers, and toward the close of his reign he manifested a tiger-like depravity. Wealthy nobles were put to death in great numbers and their property confiscated for the tyrant's benefit, Seneca himself being among the victims. Like Caligula, Nero entered the lists as a gladiator, and he sought popular applause also for his music and dancing.

During this reign half of Rome was laid in ashes by the "Great Fire." For six days and nights the flames raged unchecked, surging in billows over the slopes and through the valleys of the Seven Hills. By some, Nero was believed to have ordered the destruction, in order that he might rebuild in

1 See Munro, Source Book, 187.

2 Special report.

more magnificent fashion. On better authority he was reported to have enjoyed the spectacle from the roof of his palace, with music and dancing, singing mean while a poem he had composed on the "Burning of Troy."

The new sect of Christians also were accused of starting the fire, out of their supposed "hatred for the human race." To many, some color was given to the accusation by the talk of the Christians about an approaching destruction of the world. To turn attention from himself, Nero took up the charge, and carried out the first persecution of the Christians (§ 540), one of the most cruel in all history. Victims tarred with pitch were burned as torches in the imperial gardens, to light the indecent revelry of the court at night, and others, clothed in the skins of animals, were torn by dogs for the amusement of the mob. The persecution, however, was confined to the capital, and was not religious in purpose.

Nero sank deeper and deeper in vice and crime. Except for the disgrace, his capricious tyranny did not reach far beyond the city of Rome; but finally the legions in the provinces revolted. The tyrant was deserted by all, and the Senate condemned him to death. To avoid capture he stabbed himself, exclaiming, "What a pity for such an artist to die!"

B. THE FLAVIAN CAESARS.

483. Vespasian, 70–79. - The year 69 was one of wild confusion in government. The legions in Spain had proclaimed the general Galba emperor. Another army set up Otho, who, after a brief struggle thrust Galba from the throne. Soon Otho was slain by the praetorians; and, for a few weeks, Vitellius, another hero of the soldiery, held the imperial title. Then the legions in Syria proclaimed their general, Flavius Vespasianus (Vespasian).

He was a rude sol

Vespasian was the grandson of a Sabine laborer. dier, stumpy in build, blunt in manner, homely in tastes, but honest, industrious, experienced, and broad-minded. He had distinguished himself in Britain and in Asia, and he knew the needs of the empire. He quickly made himself master, and brought to an end the disorder into which Nero's misrule had plunged the state. His reign was economical