the river Jaxartes or Sihūn, the Sir Darya of our days, which he believed to be the Tanaïs, or Don.

The point at which he reached the Jaxartes is probably the site of the modern Khojend: there he determined to build a town, but the execution of his design was retarded by a rebellion of the Soghdians and the Bactrians. The natives also overpowered the garrisons which he had established in seven different towns on the banks of the Jaxartes, the most important of which was Cyropolis. Alexander crushed the rebels and re-established his authority on the Jaxartes in the course of a few days.

At this juncture he received news of two serious events. The Sacæ, or Scythians, had collected an army on the opposite bank of the river; while Spitamenes, in whom, owing to his past conduct, he had placed reliance, was besieging the Macedonian garrison left at Marcanda. Alexander despatched a considerable force against Spitamenes, while he himself turned towards the Jaxartes, on the left bank of which he built a city in the space of seventeen days, calling it Alexandria according to his custom. It was surrounded by a wall 60 stadia1 in circumference. Hemmed in as he now was by enemies on all sides, and weakened by sickness, he stood in great need of that magnificent self-confidence which is the birthright of conquerors. Moreover, his army was becoming disheartened, and was disinclined to attempt the passage of the river in the teeth of an enemy drawn up in battle array on the opposite bank. But he was daunted by no difficulty or danger. After completing his new capital he ordered the construction of a multitude of rafts, on

1 The stadium was 600 feet in length; but, as the foot varied greatly in ancient time, this measure of length was never certain. The "great stadium," otherwise known as the Alexandrian or Egyptian, was .12 of a geographical

which he carried his whole army in safety, fell on the Scythians, and put them to utter rout. They recognised the uselessness of further resistance, and sent envoys to announce their submission.

Meanwhile the division which had been sent to relieve the garrison of Marcanda had been annihilated by Spitamenes in the valley of the Polytimetus, or Zarafshan. On hearing of this disaster Alexander set out in haste for Marcanda, which he reached in four days. Spitamenes on the first news of his approach fled into Bactria. Alexander started in pursuit, but, despairing of overtaking him, turned back and laid waste the whole valley.

He took up his winter quarters in Zariaspa.1 During this winter (B.C. 329-328) he received reinforcements from Greece of 19,000 men, which enabled him to overrun Margiana in the following spring. There remained now but one stronghold unsubdued, namely, Petra Oxiana, which was provisioned for two years, and defended by a Soghdian named Arimazes.3 It finally capitulated, and its brave defender, together with his relatives and the principal nobility, were crucified by the exasperated conqueror.

Alexander established two fortresses south of the town of Margiana or Merv, corresponding with the modern Sarakhs and Meruchak. He next turned eastwards into Bactria, and on his way established four more strongholds, on the sites of the modern Meimena, Andakūy, Shaburgān, and Saripul. From Bactria he

1

Grigorieff suggests the identification of this place with the old town of Baykand, or with Hezarasp, in the Khorasmian oasis.

2 It may perhaps be identified with Kalāt-i-Nadiri to the north-east of Meshed, called also the "Soghdian Rock." The famous Roxana, whom Alexander soon afterwards married, was the daughter of a certain Oxyartes, who was among the captives taken with this fort.

3 Rollin, Ancient History, v. 210. See also Quintus Curtius.

returned to Marcanda, whence he probably made several expeditions into the surrounding country.1

His old enemy Spitamenes, after repeatedly attacking the Macedonian garrisons in Soghdia and Bactria, was at length killed by a band of nomads, and his head was sent to Alexander. Having now entirely subdued Soghdiana, Alexander retired for the winter to Nautaca. It was at this time that the tragic death of Cleitus occurred at the hands of the master whom he had loved and served so well.

In B.C. 327 Alexander set out on the conquest of India, leaving in Bactria a contingent of 10,000 foot and 3000 cavalry for the maintenance of order.

His career has left an indelible impression on the Oriental mind, which is slow to grasp new ideas, but extremely tenacious of them when formed. He is associated throughout Islam with the "Two Horned" (Zulkarnayn) of the Koran, and his exploits are the daily theme of professional story-tellers in the marketplaces of Central Asia.

1 He may, for example, have visited Iskander Kul, a lake which to this day bears his name.

༡ལ་5

CHAPTER II

BACTRIANS AND PARTHIANS

AT the epoch of Alexander's death the satrapy of Bactria and Soghdiana was held by his general, Amyntas. The death of the young conqueror was the signal for a mutiny among the Macedonian soldiers who had remained in that country, which was, however, immediately put down. Amyntas was removed from his satrapy and superseded by Philippus of Elymeus, who, within the space of a year, was appointed to Parthia and succeeded by Stasanor,1

The latter held his post until B.C. 301, when these provinces passed into the hands of another of Alexander's generals, Seleucus I. (Nicator), who since B.C. 312 had been in virtual possession of the greater part of his late master's conquered possessions.2 Hitherto the allegiance of Bactria had been of a doubtful character -but it was now finally established.

In 305 he entered on a campaign against Chandra Gupta, a powerful Indian king who was endeavouring to regain the realms conquered by Alexander.

1 Cf. Gutschmid, Geschichte Irans, p. 22.

2 In B.C. 327 Seleucus 1. had been placed in charge of Syria and the East, and of Babylon--to which, with the aid of Antigonus, he added Susiana. In 316, owing to a quarrel with Antigonus, he fled to Egypt, but in 312 he re-entered Babylon. The era of the Seleucidæ dates from this event. Seleucus extended his dominions as far as the Oxus and the Indus. Not till 306 did he officially adopt the title of king. Gutschmid, op. cit. p. 24.

At his hands Seleucus suffered a crushing defeat, in consequence of which he was obliged to abandon all the territory between the Indus and the Paropamisus except Alexandria of the Caucasus. This was the first dismemberment of the gigantic empire. The terrible civil

war which began immediately after the death of Alexander lasted, almost without interruption, for forty-two years, when the Macedonians were at last compelled to renounce all hopes of ruling the world.

In B.C. 280 Seleucus was assassinated by one of his officers, and was succeeded by Antiochus I. In B.C. 256, under the rule of Antiochus II., Diodotus, known as "Governor of the thousand cities of Bactria," threw off his allegiance and assumed sovereignty, thus founding the Græco-Bactrian kingdom. Polybius tells us that Diodotus was superseded by Euthydemus, who was in the enjoyment of power at the time of Antiochus the Great's expedition to the East-about B.C. 208.

2

3

Euthydemus was defeated by Antiochus, but appealed to his victor's generosity, and pointed out the grave danger that would arise if he were obliged to call in the aid of the Scythians, who were already hovering on the Chinese frontier of his dominions. Antiochus finally agreed to acknowledge his independence.

In B.C. 250 a certain Arsaces, who seems by his coins. to have been the chief of a band of Daha Scythians dwelling near the Oxus, overthrew Andragoras, nominally satrap of Parthia, and set himself up as king of Parthia.5

1 Cf. E. Drouin, loc. cit.

2 Diodotus seems to have prepared his subjects for this change of masters by issuing coins of the type struck by Antiochus II., but bearing his own portrait. Cf. Gardner, Greek and Scythian Coins, p. 20.

3 Hist. x. ad fin. xi. 34.

4 Gardner, Greek and Scythian Coins, p. 21.

5 Cf. Justin, xii. 4: "Parthis deinde domitis prefectus his statuitur ex nobilis Persarum Andragoras: inde postea originem Parthorum reges habuere."