from China seem to indicate that the drive to improve economic efficeincy has begun to pay dividends. But the inefficiency in the Chinese economy is great and widespread; the drive to reduce it is just beginning and will take some time for its full impact to be felt on economic growth. Improvements in economic efficiency, therefore, could contribute significantly to "marked success" in the remainder of the Fifth Five-Year Plan and beyond.

But efficient planning and management alone cannot guarantee the sustained high rates of economic growth required for the fourmodernizations drive. Over the longer run, the attainment of such rates must depend additionally on rapid technological progress, which in turn calls for substantial improvements in the quality of human capital.

Studies of the economic growth of developed and developing nations in the modern period show that the primary source of growth was improvements in quality of inputs-traceable to increases in the stock of scientific and technological knowledge, and the extension of its application to problems of economic production and organization.22 Some of these studies suggest that the rapid spread of modern education must have been a basic element in increasing the capacity to exploit and contribute to the available stock of tested and useful knowledge.

1. Shifts in Science and Education Policy

When the People's Republic was established in 1949, China was grossly deficient in technical manpower. In the 1950's, China's industrial technology, scientific research, and education were all profoundly influenced by the Soviet system. A large number of Russians worked or lectured in China, and many Chinese received training in the Soviet Union.23 Meanwhile, domestic education and training were expanded. School enrollment at all levels rose sharply. Apart from formal academic institutions, there was a proliferation of "spare-time" schools and inplant training courses to upgrade skills. Secondary vocational schools were also established, some attached to factories, others independent.

24

Following is a Western expert's assessment of China's educational development between 1949 and 1966:

(China) has managed to create and operate an educational system that is ideally suited to her conditions and goals. *** She has encouraged an atmosphere of learning, has made literacy among the masses one of the primary goals, has managed to elevate the overall educational level of rural youth, has trained adequate numbers of middle-level speclalists and technicians, while, at the same time not neglecting the economy's requirements for higher level professional personnel,

22 For example, Kuznets' findings indicate that only less than 20 percent of the secular growth of production per capita was attributable to increase in inputs per head of man-hours and material capital, and that the basic cause for the growth was improvements in quality, not quantity, of inputs. See Simon Kuznets,' Modern Economic Growth: Rate, Structure, and Spread," New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1966.

23 About 11,000 Soviet scientists and technicians worked in China, half in industrial enterprises. Over 700 Russians lectured in universities and technical schools, helping to establish new departments and laboratories. At the same time, some 33,000 Chinese received training in the Soviet Union: half of them were workers, and the others included 7,500 students (of whom 2,000 were graduate students) and 1,300 scientists. 24 Total school enrollment at all levels reached 130 million on the eve of the Cultural Revolution. (Ta Kung Pao, Weekly Supplement, No. 597, Nov. 24-30, 1977, p. 7.) In higher eductaion, engineering absorbed from 30 to 40 percent of all students. The next largest groups were those undergoing teacher training, with physical science third. See Leo A. Orleans, “Communist China's Education: Policies, Problems, and Prospects," In Joint Economic Committee, "An Economic Profile of Mainland China," Washington, D.C.,

1967.

particularly engineers and scientists. China has done this with a minimum of disruption to industrial productivity, in most instances, by combining education with work, and at a minimum cost to the State.25

China's pragmatists probably would agree with every point in this appraisal. On the other hand, the now widely criticized, so-called two estimates of the "gang of four," which first surfaced in 1971 but had not been openly challenged until toward the end of 1977, asserted that in the first 17 years of the People's Republic "the bourgeoisie had exercised dictatorship over the proletariat" on the educational frnot, and that the "world outlook" of the majority of teachers and students trained over those 17 years "had been chiefly bourgeois," leading them in effect to become "bourgeois intellectuals." 26

During and in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution, when the radicals' influence was predominant, drastic changes took place in China's science and education. Primary and secondary schooling combined were shortened from 12 to 9 or 10 years. The curriculum of institutions of higher education, which were closed for 3 to 5 years during the Cultural Revolution, was reduced from 4 to 3 years. College admission requirements were considerably eased." Once the student was admitted to a college, his progress was evaluated on the basis of ideological fervor and political activism. Examinations and grades were frequently attacked as symbols of the bourgeois emphasis on intellectual and academic performance. As a result, the academic quality of college training suffered greatly.28

Further, many scientists, engineers, and technicians were dislodged from their places of work and transferred to rural communes.29 Those who remained in their positions usually had to spend varying periods of time to engage in manual labor in factories or on farms. Many research institutes were closed down and research projects abolished. Between 1965 and 1973, for example, the number of research institutes in the Chinese Academy of Sciences was reduced by 40 percent and total manpower by one-third.30

Shifts in Chinese science and educational policy revolved around a wide range of issues, three of which have been most heatedly debated in recent years.31 The most important of these appears to be the ever-present controversy of "red versus expert," or ideological commitment and political reliability versus professional knowledge and technical competency. The dogmatists place preponderant emphasis on "redness," advocating that "expertness" is an integral part of "redness." To them, zeal, dedication, and ideological commitment are necessary qualifications for being innovative and inventive. On

25 Leo A. Orleans, "A Critical Review of China's Education," a paper presented at the Fourth SinoAmerican Conference on Mainland China, Airlie House, Virginia, Dec. 12-16, 1974. 26 Mass Criticism Group of the Ministry of Education, "A Major Polemic on the Educational FrontCriticizing the 'Two Assessments' Concocted by the Gang of Four'," Red Flag No. 12, Dec. 5, 1977, pp. 3-13. Entrance examinations were abolished, and prospective students were recruited from among those young workers, peasants, and discharged soldiers who had spent at least 2 years in factories or on farms.

An Oct. 23, 1977, People's Daily article reported that among the college graduates given sample tests in Shanghai, 68 percent of them flunked mathematics; 70 percent, physics: and 76 percent, chemistry. The tests are said to cover "basic knowledge that high school students should know.'

29 In Kansu Province, for example, 60 percent of the technical manpower in the College of Agricultural Sciences and 75 percent in the Institute of Animal Husbandry were switched to other jobs. (FBIS, Aug. 18, 1977, pp. M1-M2.)

Boel Billegren and Jon Sigurdson, "An Estimate of Research and Development Expenditure in the People's Republic of China in 1973," Industry and Technology Occasional Paper No. 16, OECD Development Center, Paris, France, July 1977, p. 18.

Besides the three issues discussed here, frequently debated also were questions relating to mental versus manual labor, the leadership in science projects (party cadres or leading scientists), and the substitutibility of Marxist philosophy for natural sciences. See Peking Review, No. 44, Oct. 28, 1977 p. 8.

the other hand, the pragmatists stress expertness, professionalism, and technical know-how, arguing that all these elements are themselves a manifestation of "redness." 32

Closely related to the "red versus expert" issue is the role of intellectuals. As indicated above, Chinese intellectuals, including many of those scientists, engineers, and technicians trained before the Cultural Revolution, were regarded by the radicals as chiefly bourgeois. The "gang of four" is said to have held the view that "all the scientific and technical workers were intellectual aristocrats undermining the socialist foundation," and that "all specialists are bourgeois specialists and, therefore, must be overthrown." 33 The pragmatists, on the other hand, argue that intellectuals should not be the object of "dictatorship by the proletariat," but can be enlisted to make contribution to the "socialist revolution." Invoking Mao's dictum of "using all the people to their full capacity (for socialist construction)," they insist that the policy of "uniting with, educating, and remoulding intellectuals" must be upheld.34

The third issue relates to the questions of theory versus practice and basic versus applied research. The dogmatists advocate that scientific research and education should be geared to immediate, not future, needs. They are alleged to have been opposed to the basic sciences and theoretical research in favor of "mass or open-door scientific experiments," diffusion of existing knowledge, and application and adaptation of scientific findings to production. These concerns were reflected in the sending down of scientists to factories and farms to undertake highly applied research specific to the locality and adapt research findings to local conditions.

The pragmatists, however, point out that long-range interests are neglected as a result of preoccupation with present needs and highly applied research. They recognize the usefulness of "open-door research" and "mass experimentation" and the necessity to do highly applied research and solve "urgent problems in actual production." But they also believe that specialists should be allowed greater scope to conduct scientific work, including future-oriented theoretical research, without having to justify it in terms of immediate utility and practicality, and without frequent disruptions for political education. They believe further that absorption of scientific findings in foreign publications and adaptation of imported equipment to Chinese conditions require considerable basic research capabilities.35

2. Current Emphasis on Science and Technology

The downfall of the "Gang of Four" has led to drastic changes in the directions and goals of Chinese science and educational policy. The pragmatic proposals contained in the "Outline Report" which were blocked by the radicals now have gradually been translated into concrete programs. The post-Mao leadership seems to be fully

$2 The Theoretical Group of the State Geological Bureau. "One Flag of Being Both Red and ExpertLearning from Comrade Li Sze-kuang," Red Flag, No. 11, November 1977, pp. 24-28. FBIS, June 27, 1977, D. E5.

34 Hua's report to the Fifth NPC.

35 In the Outline Report," the Chinese Academy of Sciences asserts: "*** (D)t is wrong not to critizize the tendency of belittling the role of the masses in scientific research and it is equally wrong not to give full play to the role of specialized research institutes and specialists * * *. (It is wrong not to call on scientific and technical personnel to do research and solve urgent problems in actual production; on the other hand, it is equally wrong to overlook or deny the importance of research in basic theory and the necessity of labora tory work." (Chung Ko. "The Struggle Around the Outline Report in Science and Technology," Poking Review, No. 44, Oct. 28, 1977, p. 8.)

aware of the vital importance of education, science, and technology in economic modernization. Soon after the "Gang" was toppled, Hua Kuo-feng announced, "In the next 23 years we shall have to make the modernization of science and technology lead the way, so as to contribute to the modernization of industry, agriculture, and national defense." 36 More recently, he stressed once again, "Without reaching a high level of science and education, a nation can in no way realize the four modernizations." 37

For the first time, a separate article on science and technology is stipulated in the new Constitution of the People's Republic to "reflect the importance of vigorously stepping up scientific and technological work in carrying out the general task for the new period." 38 The key role of science and technology is also reflected in the elevation of Fang Yi, head of both the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the State Commission of Science and Technology, to a vice premiership, and in his election to China's highest policy making body, the Communist Party Politburo.39 It is reflected further in the decision to increase the proportion of funds in the state budget for science and education.40

In September 1977, the Party Central Committee issued a directive to convene a national science conference in the spring of 1978. The purpose of the conference is said to be to "exchange experiences, formulate rules and plans, commend advanced scientists, and mobilize the nation and the scientific community for achieving the modernization of science and technology." 41

At the same time, other steps were taken to strengthen scientific research and science education. The State Commission of Science and Technology has been reestablished directly under the State Council. The new commission is to coordinate with the SPC to balance out the plans made by various departments and localities, and then formulate a national program for science and technology as a component part of the national economic plan.42

Some of the research organizations abolished during the Cultural Revolution have been gradually restored. Scientists, engineers, and technicians who had been sent down to factories and farms have mostly returned to their positions. Professionals now seem to have a greater voice in the decisionmaking process, and some of them have been allowed to again lead research organizations.43 Science professionals can spend more time on research and less on political study. Professional titles have been restored, and technical performance is to be evaluated through a process of peer review.

44

3 FBIS, July 5, 1977. p. E2.

People's Daily, Feb. 4, 1978, p. 2: and FBIS, Feb. 8, 1978, p. E8.

Yeh Chien-ying's report to the Fifth NPC on the revision of the Constitution in the People's Daily, Mar. 2, 1978, p. 1. See also article 12 of the Constitution of the PRC (1978).

It is believed that China is the only Communist country which has a member in the politburo representing the scientific establishment (New York Times, Sept. 27, 1977, p. 31).

49 Peking Review, No. 2, Jan. 13, 1978, p. 17; and People's Daily, Jan. 9, 1978, p. 1.

41 The Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party's Circular on Holding National Science Conference (issued on September 18, 1977). People's Daily, Sept. 23, 1977, p. 1.

42 Ibid.

43 In the Chinese Academy of Sciences, for example, academic committees consisting of professional scientists have been set up in a number of institutes, including the institutes of physics, high energy physics, and silicate research. These committees make suggestions on the orientation, tasks, and plan of scientific research, assess research results, and help train and evaluate scientific and technical personnel. See Ta Kung Pao, Weekly Supplement, No. 597, Nov. 24-30, 1977, p. 4.

Professionals now can devote at least five-sixths of their time to research," People's Daily, Sept. 23, 1977, p. 1; and Jan. 23, 1978, p. 2.

45

Greater attention has been given to basic sciences and theoretical research. A draft plan for the development of basic sciences has been prepared jointly by the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Ministry of Education.46

The plan calls for the establishment of a research system with moderized laboratories for major branches of the basic sciences within 8 years. An increasingly large number of professional meetings have been held by scientists throughout the country to discuss technical papers. A meeting of the editors of over 40 natural science periodicals was held in Peking to discuss ways for improving the quality of natural science publications.48

47

In a report at the end 1977, Fang Yi outlined the major steps to be taken in the next 8 years. Within the next 2 or 3 years, there will be a major overhaul of scientific and technological work and an increase in the number of research institutes. By 1985, there should be a "cooperatively interacting scientific and technological research system rationally distributed throughout the country with a number of new modern research centers and major experimental facilities." 49 A tentative plan calls for "the concentration of efforts on making a breakthrough in the near future on a number of key scientific and technological problems in industry, agriculture and national defense." 50

3. Post-Mao Educational Reform

To push science and technology forward will require sufficient numbers of high-grade manpower capable of mastering modern scientific and technological knowledge and of adding to it. China's goals, as sketched by Fang, are ambitious. A contingent of first-rate scientists and technicians will be created by the end of the century to "make outstanding theoretical contributions and technical inventions and, in the key branches of science and technology, to approach, reach or exceed the world's advanced levels." In addition, there will be "a professional contingent of several million people whose level is above that of university graduates," as well as a "mighty scientific and technical work force at the grass-roots level." 51

To generate such a vast pool of scientific and technical manpower requires a sound educational system. Several major educational reforms have been undertaken. One of them has been the restoration of post graduate study with emphasis on advanced work in the basie sciences. Several thousand first-year graduate students will be admitted to various research institutes during the forthcoming academic year 52 The Chinese Academy of Sciences has set up a graduate school in the Chinese University of Science and Technology in Peking, which will enroll some 1,000 students within 2 to 3 years.

Hua's report to the Fifth NPC.

46 People's Daily, Oct. 26, 1977, p. 2; Nov. 8, 1977, p. 1; and Dec. 30, 1977, p. 2.

47 Ta Kung Pao, Nov. 30, 1977, p. 3, and People's Daily, Dec. 23, 1977, p. 4.

48 Peoples Daily, Jan. 24, 1978, p. 1.

49 Fang Yi's Report to the Standing Committee of the Fourth National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consulative Conference (Dec. 27, 1977), People's Daily, Dec. 30, 1977, p. 2.

50 This point was also stressed in Hua's Report to the Fifth NPC.

$1 People's Daily, Dec. 30, 1977, p. 2.

52 The number of post graduate students admitted in the forthcoming academic year was originally set at 3,000, but was increased later because of a large number of applicants. The number of specialized fields, to which graduate students will be admitted, has been increased from 200 to 302. (People's Daily, Dec. 23, 1977, p. 4; and Jan. 23, 1978, p. 4).