completely excluded as viable alternatives for relieving wives of some of the work in their own homes.

That woman could be ridiculed or abused for the natural functions of her body showed not only the heavy weight of old traditions of degrading and despising women, but also revealed how little effect the propaganda about new ideas on women had had so far and how low a priority these ideas received in regard to other targets such as increasing yields. It also revealed a completely male dominated power struc

ture.

Protect the health of women and children so that they could give fuller scope to their enthusiasm. Because of the coming of the high tide of socialist construction many problems have arisen. One of them is the prevention of injury and death of children and women. In some cooperatives women's menses and delivery leave have been made jokes subjects of ridicule. They are sometimes asked to work in the water during their menstrual period on purpose. Three cases of miscarriage in Hsin tse county, Wu yün cooperative were caused in this way. 143 Women's work enthusiasm is high. Because of lack of care many miscarriages have been caused. Also, young women for fear of being ridiculed by male workers, insist on taking heavy jobs. Young women, because they also lack sanitary knowledge, even work harder. During pregnancy and menstrual periods they work in cold water transplanting and carrying mud from the rivers to the field. This they are allowed to do because of lack of concern on the part of the Youth League Organization. Therefore we must strengthen sanitary work and make reasonable work allocations taking into account the health of women. 144

The same newspaper published a summary of letters from readers on abuse of women's labor power.

During pregnancy and menstrual periods women do the same jobs as men and their health is seriously damaged. For example in the "Youth Attack Brigade," in the Double Five agricultural group of Lo Ch'un of Hai Sing County, labor competition resulted in two pregnant women having miscarriages and bleeding a lot, and another bleeding uninterruptedly. In another place one woman began to bleed uninterruptedly, while another woman was vomiting blood after heavy bleeding. She had wanted to strive for equal pay for equal work between the sexes and therefore worked very hard. The leaders of the brigade and agricultural group regarded this as labor enthusiasm and did not prevent it. From another county and district: A women production brigade was sent to dig a well and this caused one woman to bleed uninterruptedly. One common demand of readers: pay attention to physical condition of women. 145

A women's work group was asked to carry earth from a newly dug well. No exception was made for a woman who had menses. Eventually she had serious bleeding; that is, menorrhagia. Fortunately she was given first aid and saved. 146

In some places regardless of their physical condition, women were exhorted to participate in spring plowing:

In Hsin Chü district in this year's spring plowing, because the district committee leaders made it compulsory and neglected to show any concern for women this spring plowing had very bad consequences. According to incomplete statistics, 40 pregnant women from March to June had miscarriages or premature deliveries because of exhaustion caused by plowing work.147

From spring plowing up to the present, we have cases of miscarriage, premature deliveries and menorrhagia. These occurred in various agricultural teams. In 4 districts of 3 counties 33 women had miscarriages. These were caused by: lack of concern in the leadership, lack of sanitary commonsense among female cadres,

143 Editorial, "Protect the health of women and children, use the women masses to develop more glory and heat", Chiang-hsi jih-pao (Kiangsi Daily), 1956.6.21.

144 Editorial, "We must abolish this phenomena", Ching-nien pao (Youth Daily), Liaoning, 1956.6.17. 145 Summary of letters from the readers, "To protect the bodily health of young women," Ching-nien pao (Youth Daily), Liaoning, 1956.6.17.

146 "Protect the bodily health of young women!" The Demands of Youth, Ching-nien pao (Youth Daily), Liaoning, 1956.6.17.

147 The evil result of paying no attention to women's work," Kuang-hsi jih-pao (Kwangsi Daily), 1956.7.3. by Yang Tai-ch'ün, Hsu Ju-Lan.

women wanting to compete with men or wanting more labor points, or women being too shy to talk about these problems (about pregnancy, etc.).148

During the height of the summer season, a correspondent of the People's Daily summed up reports from Szechuan and Hopei on miscarriages resulting from excessive employment of pregnant women in field work.149 By taking greater care in assigning work to women,150 by establishing and enforcing female labor protection,151 and thereby especially caring for pregnant women, the abuses should be stopped.

A pregnant women's group was set up and organized to do light work. Within 5 months 12 pregnant women had safely left the group and 7 new members had entered it. Since the pregnant women's group was formed all the babies have been safely born.152

The Chung shua production cooperative gives 10 days of supplementary wages for women who give delivery from July this year.153

To prevent women from working excessively long hours in the field and at home, time should be set aside for women's housework and private sideline production.154 Examples were published in the press on how to employ female labor in a reasonable way.)

In a report in the press that sums up the results of the campaigns to mobilize women for farmwork, there are indications that among some women opposition to cooperativization developed as a consequence of the excesses of the mobilization campaign. The report explicitly demanded that:

Through praising the advanced elements (in production) carry out collectivist education among women, because after cooperativization many women do not love public property.156

After the busy summer season was over, a summing up of the dire consequences for women of the excesses of the campaign to increase participation in farmwork was made for Liaoning Province:

According to incomplete statistics for counties in Liaoning province, there were 689 miscarriages in 46 counties, 594 women with uninterrupted menorrhagia during their monthly periods in 41 counties, 117 women vomiting blood in 38 counties, 25 women who died because of hard labor in 14 counties. In discussing these figures we accuse the cadres of lack of care. Many housewives took part voluntarily in production in order to increase income, but many cadres made participation in production compulsory for women. Another contributing cause for the appearance of these figures, is that some women want to earn more labor points, work hard and neglect their health. The cadres must check on women's motives for wanting to work and emphasize work style instead of actual results.157

148Pay attention to the protection of the bodily health of female group members," Hsin-chiang jil.-pao (Sinkiang Daily), 1956.7.27.

149 The paper's own correspondent, "We can't again give in when unusual things in the villages happen and women and children are injured and killed," JMJP, 1956.8.12.

150 "Mobilizing women to participate in summer plowing solved a great problem," Nei-meng-ku jih-pao (Inner Mongolia Daily), 1956.7.6.

151 (I) "Women labor protection regulations set up," Chung-kuo ching-nien pao (China Youth Daily), Peking, 1956.8.4.

(II) Feng Li, APC: Be concerned about women's health and practice equal-work equal-pay for women and men," Chung-kuo ching-nien pao (China Youth Daily), Peking, 1956.8.23.

152 "An agricultural cooperative forms a pregnant women group," Chung-kuo ching-nien pao (China Youth Daily), Peking, 1956.8.11.

153 Women APC members get supplementary wages during maternity leave," Hsin Su-chou pao (New Suchow Daily), Kiangsu, 1956.7.21. Mao Pao-kan.

154 (I) "Manage household work well, practice equal-work equal-pay for women and men. Let women join agricultural production enthusiastically and happily," Ho-nan jih-pao (Honan Daily), 1956.9.9.

(II) "Southern Kiangsi decides to order village women to develop domestic sideline production." (From a conference by the Provincial Women's Federation, Aug. 28 to Sept. 3, 1956). Chiang-hsi jih-pao (Kiangsi Daily). 1956.9.11.

155 The use of women labor power in Red Flag Cooperative in Lu Chai district," JMJP, 1956.9.9. (II) "Give models for village women," Hsi-an jih-pao (Sian Daily), 1956.9.20.

(III) "Develop the further employment of women on the production front," Kan-su jih-pao (Kansu Daily), 1956.9.22., by Ch'i K'o-hsing.

156 "Vanguard cooperative pays attention to the ideological education work of women," Kan-su jih-pao (Kansu Daily), 1956.11.24.

157 "Talk of figures", Liao-ning jih-pao (Liaoning Daily), 1956.10.3., by Li Chiang.

After the flood of reports about women having miscarriages, bleeding, falling ill and even being killed by overwork that cadres forced women to do, the stress on taking part in farmwork was toned down. At that time women were to be given more time for household work.158 The number of working hours were not to be set too high and were allowed a certain degree of flexibility:

159

Pay attention to women's specific condition and arrange their working hours, considering that: (I) Those who have no mother-in-laws should be given time to cook, wash clothes, water vegetables, feed pigs and look after children, and (II) time should also be given to feed poultry and grow vegetables.160

Don't force women to overwork. During their delivery period allowances should be given to them according to regulations. In doing household work cooperation and mutual help between neighbours are also important. 161

Special attention was to be given to women during busy seasons in agriculture 162 and women who were particularly maltreated.163 During the Third Village Women's Work Conference for Shantung Province, October 16-24, 1956, it was especially emphasized that:

Because too much stress is put on the advantages of women's joining production, concrete difficulties that they suffer are neglected. Therefore the targets are set too high and the tasks cannot be accomplished. When mobilization of women for work in the fields is overemphasized, side-line production is neglected. In this way the contradiction between household work and field work cannot be settled.164

Arranged by the ACDWF from December 15 to 25, 1956, a special "forum on work among women in rural areas" summed up the results of the increased mobilization drive and its effects, positive and negative, on women.165 All agreed that the number of women activists had greatly increased and that women had increased the length of their workdays as well as were performing a wider variety of tasks. In the words of the forum:

In connection with the participation of women in production instances were reported in which women's labor was employed in excess *** in correcting the deviation of paying no heed to the special physiological and physical characteristics of women but merely stressing the mobilization of female labor power and setting too high a target for work demanded of women. *** The ages and

158 (I) A meeting for the cadres of the Women's Federation of all districts in the Peking suburban area, "Decide on the tasks from now on in women's work for all districts", Pei-ching jih-pao (Peking Daily), 1956.10.12.

(II) "Give women time for making winter clothes, women cooperative members are very glad," Chungkuo ching-nien pao (China Youth Daily), Peking, 1956.11.14.

(III) "Resolutely protect women in their labor right", Chiang-hsi jih-pao (Kiangsi Daily), 1956.11.15. Speech by delegate Chang Pao-Chen, at the 5th meeting of the Kiangsi provincial people's congress.

15 Speech at the 2nd Women's Representative Conference of the Sinkiang Higher Autonomous Region, by Wu Ch'ien-chang, secretary of the CCP committee of the Sinkiang Higher Autonomous Region, "Command all the women forces in the Autonomous Region to construct socialism", Hsin-chiang jih-pao (Sinkiang Daily), 1956.10.23.

150 On the 5th meeting of Kiangsi provincial people's congress, the people's delegates from the province, Liu San-Ying and Li Yu-hsia call on village women, "We must pay attention to women's special conditions and arrange production time," Chiang-hsi jih-pao (Kiangsi Daily), 1956.11.2.

161 On the 5th meeting of the Kiangsi Provincial People's Congress speech by delegate Chou Han-chen "Something about the protection of female labor power and the looking after of the special benefits of female cooperative members," Chiang-hsi jih-pao (Kiangsi Daily), 1956.11.10.

102 (I) "In Autumn plowing and harvest pay attention to the health and safety of women and children," Hsin-hua jih-pao (New China Daily), Nanking, 1956.10.30.

(II) T'ang Yi-min "The live-stock-breeding cooperative pays attention to women joining production," Hsin-chiang jih-pao (Sinkiang Daily), 1956.12.22.

(III) "Protect labor power and raise the attendance rate, in Chu Chi district, Wai Ch'en village a cooperative pays attention to female labor protection work," Chien k'ang pao (Health Paper), 1956.11.30. 163Women with specific problems should be given help," Nung-min pao (Peasants Daily), Sungchiang, 1956.10.28.

184 "Our Province gathers to the 3rd Village Women's Work Conference investigate and solve the problems of production and household affairs for women," Shan-hsi jih-pao (Shansi Daily), 1956.11.1.

its ACWDF, "Forum on work among women in rural areas," NCNA, 1956.12.26.

physical conditions of women, their domestic duties and the needs of production must all be properly considered in asking for and deciding on plans for the production tasks to be assigned to women.' 166

In a concluding note summing up the village women's work conference, the People's Daily especially stated:

The idea of simply mobilizing women into production is not correct. They should also pay attention to their concrete circumstances. Praise the women who do well both in work and in household management.167

The attitude and lack of action on the part of the ACDWF about the excesses during the height of the cooperativization campaign was first criticized half a year later by a forum on women's work. Shen Tzu-chin, secretary of the ACDWF secretariat, said:

Much work has been done by the ACDWF but the Federation lacks foresight in regard to some work for women and this is very important. The Federation concerns itself too much with small things as if it is afraid of revealing contradictions. For example, at the height of the agricultural cooperativization drive cases of death and injury of women were reported because some women were employed too much, but the Federation only sent a report to the higher levels and circulated in the organization a report but did not talk publicly about the problems and did not invite the expression of opinions from the general public to solve the problem.168

166 "Demands by the ACDWF on a discussion meeting on village women's work for cooperation of agricultural cooperatives in using women's labor," JMJP, 1956.12.28. 107 Ibid.

18 "Nonparty leaders in women's work hold forum," NCNA, Peking, 1957.6.6.

The Relaxation of Demands in 1957

The intense propaganda in 1956 to attract more women to agriculture, gave way in 1957 to greater concern for the difficulties encountered by women during the previous year. More time was to be set aside for what was called women's "duties"-household affairs, child care, shoe- and cloth-making, since at that time the socialization of these "duties" received low priority and, therefore, the means were not available to relieve women of these heavy burdens.

As more than 100 million women had already been drafted into farmwork, no urgent need was felt to mobilize the remaining women, as they were usually weaker, older, more unskilled, with many small children, or looking after an already working mother's offspring. Thus, immediate propaganda gradually decreased as fewer women were needed. This was also expressed in a speech by Yang Shün-tung, Vice Minister of Agriculture, at the Congress of Representatives of Family Relations of Workers and Staff, held in Peking June 3-12, 1957.16 169

Already in the National Program for Agricultural Development, drafted January 23, 1956, article 39 stated that agriculture had to absorb some of the urban unemployed.170 At the First National People's Congress in June 1956 Ma Wen-jui, Minister of Labor, had expressed concern over growing urban unemployment and had advocated a policy of sending the unemployed to rural areas to take part in agricultural production."

In June 1957, Vice Chairman of the State Planning Commission, Sung P'ing, further elaborated the need for rural areas to absorb excessive urban workers for a long time to come.172 In August 1957, Wang Kuang-wei, Assistant Director of the State Planning Commission and specialist on agricultural problems, discussed how to organize agricultural labor power, pointing out that not only in the short run but also for a long time to come agriculture would not only have to create employment for the rural population but also to absorb surplus manpower from the cities. 173

Earlier it was indicated that agricultural labor power was gradually to be transformed into industrial labor. Therefore, in the future some rural population was to be urbanized. For the time being, however, and also for a long time to come, the organization of rural labor power was to occur in agriculture. In the long run there would not exist a labor surplus in rural areas, though in some regions there might be such a surplus. Apart from that, large amounts of part-time labor power and subsidiary labor power were available in each region. 174

Thus, at the Third National Congress of Chinese Women, September 1957, the upgrading of household work was made the main theme as there were few new jobs available to women. The chief slogan was

160 "Speech by Vice Minister of Agriculture, Yang Shün-tung" in "Ch'üan-kuo chih-kung chia-shu tai-piao hui-i chu-yao wen-chien" (Important documents on the national representative congress of dependents of staff and workers) by the Women's Work Department of the All-China General Trade Union, Peking, 1957, p. 76 ff.

170 Communist China 1955-159. Policy Documents with Analysis, Harvard University Press, 1962, p. 126. 171 Ma Wen jui, Minister of Labor, "Wages, labor conditions and employment," NCNA, Peking, 1956.6:29, in CB. No. 405, 1956.7.26., p. 1 ff.

172 Sung P'ing, "Talk on employment questions," Hsieh-hsi (Study), No. 12, 1957, June, p. 25 ff.

173 Wang Kuang-wei, "How to organize agricultural labor power," Chi-hua ching-chi (Planned Economy), No. 8, 1957.8.9.

174 Ibid.