"Manage household work with industry and thrift." 175 In the words of Chang Yun, Vice-Chairwoman of the ACWF, who delivered the main report of the congress:

Chairman Mao Tse-tung recently told us that coordination of industry and thrift is necessary in running the household and the cooperative, in loving the country, the cooperative and the family. Hence management of the household with industry and thrift must be seen as an important part of the country's construction with industry and thrift, and the basic means for women to help the country in socialist construction and to build new socialist families.176 (emphasis added.)

In regard to peasant women, Chang Yun stressed the importance of auxiliary production:

Second, in the family active development of all types of sideline production. Such production is suitable for women. Especially in rural areas sideline production is a considerable part of the total family income. Thus, since the beginning of the campaign to develop all types of economy, great importance has been given to family sideline production. Many women are actively working in breeding of pigs and poultry and striving to develop all types of sideline production.177

As few more women were needed in allocation of rural labor power, references were made to the great amount of time required for household labor and sideline production. Likewise more attention was to be paid to concrete obstacles and women with weaker labor capacity:

In rural areas women's labor power must be used reasonably according to their capacity and ability, and the plans of the local agricultural cooperatives and local conditions. Some of the women must participate mainly in agricultural auxiliary production, and others must take part mainly in auxiliary family production.178

As problems of urban unemployment became more serious, more than 2 million urban school graduates and over 0.8 million urban cadres were "sent down" (hsia-fang) to rural areas in 1957.179

In these circumstances pressures to enlist more women in agriculture decreased. Women were still exhorted to participate in agricultural production but simultaneously concern was shown for their total work burden.180

Women were still told to work and assured that concern for their health would not be neglected.181 In an editorial in People's Daily on the busy season in 1957 a warning was issued not to overwork women.182 Not enough attention has been paid to women's labor power and this results in casualties. . . In many places it still happens that women and children are destroyed. We must give education to men and women about safe production and women's health, especially during menses, pregnancy, and delivery periods. Women should be given time to rest.

In a local cadre forum in Shantung Province in 1957 it was disclosed that some of the injustices inflicted on women still existed, such as wage discrimination, overwork by women resulting in mis

175 Editorial, "Mobilize the women masses to reconstruct the country and manage household affairs with industry and thrift," JMJP, 1957.9, in HHPYK, 1957, No. 12, p. 118ff.

176 Report to the 3rd National Congress of Chinese Women, Chang Yun, "With industry and thrift build the country and manage the household, and fight to build socialism," JMJP 1957.9.10. and 1957.9.11. in HHPYK, 1957, No. 12, p. 95 ff.

177 Ibid.

178 Ibid.

179 John S. Aird, "Population Growth and Distribution in Mainland China," in Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, An Economic Profile of Mainland China, 1967, p. 387 (hereafter referred to as J. S. Aird, 1967).

180"Mother of 5 children made over 200 workdays," Ho-nan jih-pao (Honan Daily) 1957.3.8.

(II) Wu-lan Chairman, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Women's Federation, "Women of all nation.alities in Inner Mongolia moving ahead," Nei-meng-ku jih-pao (Inner Mongolia Daily) 1957.4.27. 181 Editorial, "Give full scope to women's socialist enthusiasm," JMJP, 1957.3.8.

182 Editorial, "Reasonable use and arrange village women's labor power," JMMP, 1957.3.26.

carriage and also a lack of child-care facilities. In the words of the forum:

After women take part in labor, problems arise about carrying out the policy of equal pay for equal work. In a certain village the female production group leader worked just as much as the male leader. She got only 500 labor points, while he got 1,500 points. Both were cadres. There was no paying attention to the special benefits for women. It was a general neglect of women's welfare. In some villages women did (I) agricultural work (II) household work and (III) needle work, while male laborers only did the first and worked only during the day and neither cooked nor did any needle work.

There had been no special care for pregnant women. During the last half year 120 miscarriages have already occurred because of excessively heavy work for women. All these miscarriages occured in Chiao County alone, in Shantung Province Some of the women must bring the children with them to the hillside, when working because there were no child-care facilities.183

By means of collective arrangements some of the traditional duties of women could and should be lightened, as for example through greatly expanding the child care facilities.

The Great Leap Period

The formation of the rural people's communes in 1958 meant a reorganization of rural life. Canteens, child care stations, and service teams were to release women from domestic duties for agricultural production. Though part of women's workload was lightened, even more was added. This was particularly so because an increasing number of men were drafted for farmland capital construction projects. Women had to shoulder more of the agricultural tasks and also some of the heavier work earlier done by men, like pumping water. In addition women were asked to participate in mass labor projects, like building dams, and terracing fields. In some villages up to 15 percent of the women suffered injuries in the work of regulating rivers and mountains, because they were inexperienced and not accustomed to the tools used.184

The demands for more women to participate in production were combined with calls for greater protection of women.185

Because men were engaged in farmland capital construction projects, women were to fill the resulting labor shortage in agriculture.186 In order to accomplish this the Tai Yen hung commune employed three methods:

(I) They used the woman leader and the woman brigade leader as backbones to hold meetings to mobilize women, and criticized in big character posters the male brigade leader for looking down upon women.

(II) They made reasonable arrangements for labor distribution, gave work close to home and easier work to women. For hard work male members were sent to help women.

(III) They established nurseries and creches.187

183 Forum by female cadres from 8 counties express their opinions, "What are the contradictions that village women must solve," Ta-chung jih-pao (the Masses Daily), Tsinan, 1957.5.15.

184 Tsao Kuan-chun, NWF secretary, "A further step to liberate women's labor power, for the sake of quicker, better, and more to serve the construction of socialism," JMJP, 1958.6.2.

185 (I) "ACWF message to every level of the WF about March 8th, International Women's Day", JMJP, 1958.2.18.

(II) T'ien Hsiu-chuan, ACWF secretariat, "Promote women's work in Ho wen hsien," JMJP, 1958.6.12.

186 (I) "Progress and make great use of developing women in socialist construction," JMJP, 1958.11.12. (II) "Emancipate women labor force," Pao-tou jih-pao (Paotow Daily), 1958.8.9.

187 Ibid., footnote 186 II.

As a consequence of this policy in many communes women had to do a full day's work in the daytime in agriculture, and in the evenings still shoulder heavy housework.188 In 1959 warnings were issued against overwork and provisions were made by the sixth plenary session of CCP Central Committee to assure everyl ody of 8 hours of sleep and 4 hours of meals and rest every day.189

In a speech T'an Chen-lin, a member of CCP Central Committee, outlined the future for women's employment:

This year the women of China played a great role in the great leap, especially in agricultural production. This situation will develop and women will take up the duty of becoming the principal force in agricultural production. *** In general these industrial departments (of iron and steel) use mostly male labor power and offer few types of work that women workers can do. Therefore, up to a certain level of socialist construction most women will have to take up agricultural production. 190

Ts'ai Ch'ang in a Women's Day speech in 1959, stressed health protection for women.191 According to one source 9 health protection centers were in existence in 1949, compared to 4,315 in 1958.192 In an editorial on Women's Day in 1961 it was especially stated that village women were to be given 6 to 8 days of rest every month.193 Labor protection for women was particularly needed during the busy farm season in order not to damage women's health through overwork.19 Through increased labor protection women would contribute more to agricultural production:193

There are still some production team leaders who do not pay sufficient attention to labor protection of women. They continually stress the fulfillment of production quotas before implementing the policy of labor protection for women. In addition, there are some young production team leaders who are not experienced or knowledgeable and don't understand how important it is to protect women's labor. Some young women production team leaders surge ahead in production, but do not dare to surge ahead in protecting the women of their teams. Because of this the policy of labor protection for women is not fully carried out and therefore both women's health and the production of the team are affected to a certain extent.196

In a report to the Third Women's Representative Conference of Kwangtung Province in March 1962, Chou Wan-yu, Chairman of the Kwangtung Women's Federation, stressed the importance of combining increased demands for women's labor with labor protection work. In some places this problem had not yet been solved.197 Women were told to increase the participation in agricultural work, but not at the expense of their health because that would harm both them and the

138 (I) "Yung-fu agricultural commune carries out equal pay for equal work. Women's labor won over men's," Pao-tou jih-pao (Paotow Daily), 1958.8.9. (IF) CKFN special commentary, "Discussing the new stage of the women's movement", CKFN, 1959.5.16., p. 1 ff. 180 Speech by Comrade T'an Chen-lin at the All-China conference of women activists in socialist construction," CKFN, 1959.1.1., p. 6 1.

190 Ibid.

191 Speech by Ts'ai Ch'ang, "Start the leap of this year and make it bigger, better, and more complete," Shen-hsi jih-pao (Shensi Daily), 1959.3.8.

192 "Several hundred millions of women released from household labor; became a brave main force in production," Chung-kuo ching-nien pao (China Youth), 1959.9.23.

193 Editorial, "Women contribute more to the efforts to win a bumper harvest of crops this year," JMJP,

1961.3.8.

194 Ibid.

195 "Women's work zeal is stimulated by proper labor protection", CKFN, No. 4, 1961.4.1. 196Improve further the work of labor protection for rural commune members," CKFN, No. 8, 1961.8.1. 197 (I) Report by Chou Wan-yu, Chairman of the Kwangtung Women's Federation to the Kwangtung Women's Third Representative Conference, "Unite the broad masses of the whole province, hold high the three red banners and strive for the victory of socialism," Nan-fang jih-pao (Souther Daily), 1962.3.27. (II) "The decisions of the Third Women's Representative Conference of Kwangtung Province," Nan-fang jih-pao (Southern Daily), 1962.3.27.

long-term interest of production.198 The models given, however, for women to emulate were women or women teams that through a combination of utter devotion to work and self-sacrifice created miracles in the form of bumper harvests. 199 In this way double messages were given to women. They were told to take care of their health and not endanger it through overwork. The labor heroines, however, always set the collective interest first and sacrificed their own interests for increased production, sometimes even their own life.200

During the Cultural Revolution, the Women's Federation was dissolved as well as the Communist Youth League and the trade unions. During the height of this period, 1966-68, revolutionary spirit was stressed in women's work as the main factor contributing to the solution of all women's problems.201

A regional conference for women's work in Huhehot, Inner Mongolia, November 6 to 17, 1972, stressed that it was "necessary to conscientiously implement the labor protection policy and pay attention to solving women's vital problems." 202

The Women's Federation was reestablished at a series of provincial conferences in 1973. In women's work, the conferences stressed the following four points:

(1) Training of women cadres.

(2) Realization of the policy of equal work equal pay for women and men.

(3) Strengthening of health protection for women and children. (4) Encouragement to share household chores between women and men.

In addition the promotion of late marriage and family planning was emphasized as well as education on changing existing habits and customs.203 Now Mao's teaching from the 1950's could be reversed.204 "Whatever women comrades could accomplish, men comrades should be taught to accomplish, too."

NUMBER OF WOMEN ENGAGED IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

The policy of the CCP was to increase agricultural production through the combined effects of institutional changes and increased labor inputs, thereby using labor more intensively and drawing tradi

198❝Announcement from the National Women's Federation to every level of the Women's Federation about greeting of March 8, International Women's Day," 1965.2.16., CKFN, 1965.3.1., No. 3, p. 1.

199 Ibid.

200 (I) "Tach'ai spirit Tach'ai women," JMJP, 1965.3.8.

(II) "Women take out revolutionary work efforts, welcome the new upsurge in production," JMJP, 1965.3.8.

(III) Sun Wei-shih, Newsletter from Tach'ing, Hung-ch'i (Red Flag), No. 12, 1965.11.11.

(IV) "The women of Tach'ing oilfield play a revolutionary role," NCNA, 1966.3.5.

(V) "Give more thought to others than to oneself," NCNA, 1966.10.25.

(VI) Speech by Ts'ai Ch'ang, NCNA, "Learn from the revolutionary spirit of the workers dependents in Tach'ing oilfield," JMJP, 1966.2.26.

(VII)Women fight for emulating the models, for carrying through the Third Five Year Plan. Hold high the red banner of Mao Tse-tung thought, like Tach'ing and Tach'ai," JMJP, 1966.9.9.

20 (I) Editorial, "Chairman Mao's books are the highest directives for women's work," CKFN, No. 7, 1966.7.10.

(II) "Class nature of the problems of women must not be written off," CKFN, No. 8, 1966.8.10.

(III) "Learn from the splendid examples of the People's Liberation Army and study Mao's work in a big way," CKFN, No. 11, 1966.10.17.

(IV) Editorial, "Long live Chairman Mao's revolutionary line," CKFN, No. 12, 1966.11.7.

(V) Shih Sung-ch'ing, "Proletarian dictatorship is the life of revolutionary women," WHP, 1968.7.27., p. 4. 202 "Inner Mongolia holds Regional Conference on Women's Work," Inner Mongolia RS in Mandarin, 11:00 GMT, 1972.11.20. in FBIS-CHI-72-229, No. 229, vol. 1, p. F 1, 1972.11.27.

203 See footnotes 106 and 197.

204 A quotation from the works of Mao Tse-tung that appears on the front page of JMJP, 1978.3.8.

tionally marginal groups into the labor force, such as the young, the old, and women. In regard to the employment of women, (a) more women were needed in agriculture, and (b) each women was required to work more. We will first discuss (a) then in next part (b). The policy of the CCP has over time been to increase the number of women working in Chinese agriculture. In connection with drastic changes or crisis particular emphasis has been out on woman taking part in farmwork. The collectivization campaign in 1956, the formation of the rural people's communes in 1958 in combination with a complete reorganization of rural life and the great crisis 1959-61, all witnessed special drives for drafting more women for the agricultural front. The three periods all show more women taking part in production then either before, in between, or just after. After the great crisis of the early 1960's, a pattern began to emerge well known to many industrializing countries. Men were particularly recruited for the development of both land improvement, "farm land capital construction," and rural industries, while women were left in the most primitive and unproductive sector, here the agricultural sector.

In table 2 (below), two approximations have been made of the total number of women aged 15 to 59 of the agricultural population. This table gives in absolute numbers approximations of the maximum number of women that can possibly be employed in agricultural work at any one time.

TABLE 2.-TOTAL NUMBER OF WOMEN 15 TO 59 YEARS OLD IN THE AGRICULTURAL POPULATION OF CHINA 1929-33, 1949-78

"Agricultural population". The definition of "agricultural population" ranges from the most narrow definition including (a) only those in agricultural pursuits, to including (b) those both engaged in agricultural pursuits and subsidiary occupations jointly, to the widest definition used in Communist literature, including also (c) those solely engaged in subsidiary occupations (according to Liu, Yeh, 1965, p. 183).

According to J. L. Buck (1964, p. 290, table 1), those falling under category (c) made up 12 percent of the total of (a), (b), and (c). Estimate I includes categories (a) and (b) while estimate II encompasses categories (a) to (c).