that most of the 30 percent of able-bodied village women not working in busy season agriculture were those burdened with the largest number of small children and/or those with no mothers-in-law.258 If 30 percent of those women had about 35 percent of the children, there would have been 6 to 6.9 million children whose mothers took part in farmwork. Of these children, 312,000, 4 to 5 percent, were cared for by organized child care. The remaining 5.7 to 7.6 million children had to be cared for in other ways.

The proportion of women taking part in farmwork decreased during 1957. According to earlier estimates, 50 to 65 percent of the ablebodied women in the agricultural population took part in farming in 1957. If 35 to 50 percent of the women not working in agriculture had about 40 to 55 percent of the children, there would have been 4.3 to 6.5 million children whose mothers worked in the fields. Of these, 250,000 children, about 5 percent, were in child-care institutions, while the rest of 4 to 6.2 million had to be cared for in other ways.

If the Shantung data are representative of China in 1956 and 1957, then obviously more organized child care was needed. However, Shantung seems to have had a smaller proportion of children in organized child-care facilities than the average for China in 1956, based on data for China as a whole given below. Reports from Kansu and Shensi showed that not only were more busy season stations called for 259 in Kiangsu but better management was particularly stressed:

But attention should be paid to this that no matter how the child-care station is run, some person should be put in charge of it. Never let children by left alone, because the enthusiasm for production can be influenced if accidents happened.260

Suggestions were put forward of how to better organize childcare and reduce women's double workload. 261 In a speech, the Vice Chairwoman of the ACWF, Chang Yün, disclosed that for almost 300,000 children looked after by the Women's Federation and the trade unions, on the average 1 person looked after 22 children.262 Women were sometimes even held responsible for not being able to manage double workloads:

In an agricultural cooperative in Honan 32 women fell ill because of overwork and lack of sleep, but they were well again a few days later. The public calls this the general disease and doesn't pay much attention. Because there was no time for women to do housework, according to statistics from 93 cooperatives, 183 family quarrels occurred because children and husbands needed shoes 263 and in addition could not get regular meals, What is needed are child-care stations, busy season canteens and sewing groups.264

258 T'ien Hsiu-chiang, ACDWF Secretariat, "Promote women's work in Ho wen hsien" in JMJP, 1958.6.12. In this article it is mentioned that when carrying out propaganda for family planning, the authorities found that 29 percent of the women could not join production because of giving birth to too many children. 259 (I) The Investigation and Research Team in Farm Work of the CCP in the region south of Yin Ch'uan town, "Ways to solve the problem of women going to work in the fields," Kan-su jih-pao (Kansu Daily) 1956.6.25.

(II) Editorial, "Set examples for village women," Hsi-an jih-pao (Sian Daily), 1956.9.20.

200 At the 5th meeting of the Kiangsi Provincial People's Congress, speech by delegate Chou Han-chen "Something about the protection of female labor power and the care of the specific benefits of female cooperative members." Chiang-hsi jih-pao (Kiangsi Daily), 1956.11.10.

261 Speech by delegate P'i Lu-ying, "Correctly solve the problem of village women's work in rural areas," Chiang-hsi jih-pao (Kiangsi Daily), 1956.11.13.

262 Speech by Chang Yun, "To give fuller scope to women in the role of building socialism," HHPYK, No. 17, 1957, p. 46 ff.

263 Referring to cloth shoes traditionally stiched by women. One pair of shoes usually required 2 day's work to make and lasted a few months.

204 "At the 5th session of the 1st People's congress In Hunan. Speech by delegate Lin Wen." "Reasonably settle the contradiction between women joining production and their household work," Ho-nan jih-pao (Honan Daily) 1956.11.27.

27-427-78-40

265

According to a speech by Minister of Public Health, Li Teh-ch'uan,2 in all 634,640 rural child-care stations had received 6,106,272 children in 1956.265 Assuming a Chinese population of 626 to 633 million in the year 1956 and that 80.5 to 83.4 percent of this population was agricultural (see calculation after table 2), there were 504 to 528 million Chinese in the agricultural population. If children under 7 constituted 22 to 24 percent of this population, there would have been 111 to 127 million children in the farm population. According to estimates, 60 to 70 percent of all able-bodied women worked in agriculture during the busy seasons in 1956. Assume that most of the 30 to 40 percent able-bodied village women not working in busy season agriculture were those burdened with the largest number of small children and/or those with no mothers-in-law. If 30 to 40 percent of those women had about 35 to 45 percent of the children, there would have been 61 to 83 million children in the agricultural population whose mothers took part in farmwork during the busy season. Of these children, 6.1 million, 7 to 10 percent, had been taken care of by busy farm season child-care stations. The residual of 55 to 77 million children were necessarily cared for in other ways, by elderly women, or taken along to the work in the fields, or left to themselves.

In an article translated into English, one example was given of a collective that had laid down the rule that women were not permitted to do outside work, unless they had made adequate provisions for child care.266 This rule stands in contrast to articles in local Chinese papers telling about women who had to attend to work, meetings, and so forth, regardless of whether or not child care was available.267

The Great Leap Period

The formation of rural people's communes in 1958 meant a total reorganization of rural life.268 Through collectivization of private life, women were to be released for production. Canteens, kindergartens, and service stations were set up on a grand scale. In Shantung there were a total of 189,000 kindergartens in late 1958.269 That would mean an increase of 71⁄2 times above the number in 1957. In early 1959, 64 million children were cared for in nurseries in all of China, compared to a total of 6.4 million for 1957. Of these 6.4 million children, 6.1 million were taken care of in child-care stations in the rural areas.270 Assuming the same relationship between urban and rural areas for 1959 as for 1957, would mean that 61 million children in the countryside received collective child care.

265 Speech by Li Teh-ch'uan, Vice Chairwoman of the ACWF, at a women's representative conference, "Development conditions of women's and children's sanitary work," JMJP, 1957.9.15.

Chang Yun, Vice Chairwoman of the ACDW, had just before given the rough estimate of 6 million children being cared for in a speech, "Fight to develop socialism and manage with industry and thrift," CKFN, No. 10, 1957.10.1;

266 China in Transition, selected articles 1952-56 by writers for China Reconstructs, Peking 1957, p. 317 ff. 267 (I) "The forum for health protection of women and children and equal pay for equal work," Ch'ing-hai jih-pao (Tsinghai Daily), 1957.1.17.

(II) "The new contradiction after women take part in construction," Che-chiang jih-pao (Chekiang Daily), 1957.5.25.

268 See section "Women and Overwork."

(I) "The great starting point of communism-get household work organized," Chung-kuo ching-nien (China Youth), 1958.7.1.

(II) "Organize the life of the masses, liberate women's labor power," CKFN, 1958.7.16.

(III) "Women have come from household work to liberation," JMJP, 1958.7.2.

269 Editorial, "Organize more women to join spring plowing and harvest!" JMJP, 1958.10.13.

270 "On the new stage of the women's movement," CKFN, 1959.5.16., p. 1 ff.

The agricultural population made up 78.3 to 81.1 percent 271 of an estimated total population of 651 to 665 million at yearend of 1958.272 Assuming children under 7 years of age still made up 22 to 24 percent of an agricultural population of 510 to 539 million, there would have been 112 to 129 million children. From 80 to 95 percent of all ablebodied village women were estimated to have particpated in agricultural production, while 5 to 20 percent of the women with about 10 to 25 percent of children did not take part in farm work. Thus of 84 to 116 million children whose mothers worked in the fields as many as 61 million children, 53 to 73 percent of all, were taken care of by the child care stations, while 23 to 55 million were cared for in other ways. In some places it was claimed that up to as many as 85 percent of all pre-school-age children had been admitted to the child care stations.273

Old attitudes such as favoring one's kin were hard to uproot and could sometimes endanger the purpose of the child care stations: Nurses in the nurseries and kindergartens adopted the attitude of treating their relatives better than those children unrelated to them with the result that almost 9 out of 10 children placed under their care became ill. This worried the mothers, who thus could not concentrate on production. Because of this state of affairs, many mothers were reluctant to send their children to the nurseries and kindergartens and it appeared as if the nurseries and kindergartens would collapse.274

Still the number of child care stations were on the increase. The number of children under the care of child care stations in 1958 increased 7 times over 1957, while the number of children in kindergartens increased 26 or 27 times.275 A total of 3,186,292 child-care stations were in existence in 1958 in all of China.276

By March 1959, 67.7 million children, it was claimed had been admitted to 4.98 million child-care stations and kindergartens, which was called the equivalent of more than 70 percent of the preschool-age children.277 If 67.7 million children equalled 70 percent of all pre-school age children, there would have been a total of 96.71 million children in March 1959. Children under 7 made up 22 to 24 percent of the total population. The 1958 yearend population was 651 to 665 million,278 which would mean 143 to 150 million children of which the children in child care stations, 67.7 million, made up 42 to 47 percent. Thus the claim refers to children with working mothers, not all children under 7 years of age. 67.7 million children in 4.98 million child care stations average to 14 children per station. Earlier it was disclosed that on the average 22 children were looked after by one person.279 Hence, if on the average there were about 14 children per station and on the average 1 person looked after 22 children, most child care stations were staffed by a single person. This staffing pattern explains the warning issued earlier against never leaving children alone.

271 See calculation after table 2.

272 See data in my forthcoming dissertation.

273 New life of women in the agricultural people's communes", Chung-kuo hsin-wen (China News Service), 1959.2.24.

274 Reform mess halls and nurseries", Shui chiao nung min pao (Canton Suburbs Peasant News), 1959.1.7 URS, Vol. 14, No. 24, 1959.3.24., p. 361.

275 (1) "Women enthusiastically plunge into the movement for increasing production", JMJP, 1959.8.20 (II) National Women's Federation summons the leaders of the Women's Federation in the provinces' municipalities and autonomous regions to an enlarged conference, "Further mobilize women in the whole country to plunge into the high tide of increase production and practice thrift movement, CKFN, 1959.9.1." 276"Several hundred millions of village women released from household labor, became a brave main force in production", Chung-kuo ching-nien pao (China Youth Daily), 1959.9.23.

277"The great development of collective welfare work and a new phase of women's complete emancipation," JMJP, 1959.3.7.

278 See data in my forthcoming dissertation.

279 "Several hundred millions of village women, released from household labor, became a brave main force in production," Chung-kuo ching-nien pao (China Youth), 1959.9.23.

An estimate was made that 53 to 73 percent of the children of working mothers were admitted to child care stations. A few data from Tientsin showed a somewhat lower level, though it was a suburban area. Earlier it was disclosed that in general a higher proportion of the women were working in suburban than in rural areas. Thus, a higher proportion of pre-school-age child-care stations was to be expected in suburban areas. During 1958 and 1959 in the Great Leaps Forward in agricultural production Tientsin's rural women's labor force totaled upward of 1,790,000 or 93.6 percent of the total women's labor force. From 60 to 80 percent of the total labor force of men and women regularly engaged in production. In 1959 Tientsin had 75,659 child care stations and kindergartens of which 71,406 were in rural areas. There were a total of 784,822 children in the child care stations.280 Women of working age made up around 27 percent of the total population in the late 1950's,281 while children made up 22 to 24 percent. 282 Hence the total women labor force was 2.13 million in a total population of 10.24 million of which children made up 2.25 to 2.46 million. Assuming that the 20 to 40 of the women not working regularly had 25 to 45 percent of the children would mean 1.35 to 1.69 million children with working mothers. Of the total, 784,822 or, 46 to 58 percent were admitted to child care stations.

TABLE 12.-NUMBER OF CHILDREN IN CHILDCARE STATIONS IN 5 CHINESE PROVINCES AND IN
ALL OF CHINA IN 1958

All China (1) CKFN special commentary, "Discussing the new stage in the women's movement", CKFN, 1959.5.16., p. 1 ff. (II) "Several hundred million village women, released from household labor have become a brave main force in production", Chung-kuo ching-nien pao (China Youth Daily), 1959.9.23.

Hopei-"The vast number of women in our province become an important force on the production front", Ho-pei jihpao (Hopei Daily), 1959.9.26.

Szechwan-Tai K'o-yu, Vice-Chairman, Szechwan Provincial Women's Federation, "Hail the mighty achievements of the Szechwan women's movement", Ssu-ch'uan jih-pao (Szechwan Daily), 1959.9.29.

Kweichow-Kweichow Provincial Women's Federation, "The development of female and child welfare services in our province in the last 10 years", Kuei-chou jih-pao (Kweichow Daily), 1959.9.15.

Yunnan-Fang Wen-chien, Vice Chairman, Yunnan Provincial Federation, "The Great Leap Forward of the women's movement", Yun-nan jih-pao (Yunnan Daily), 1959.10.12.

Chekiang Thirteen million in Chekiang's commune mess halls," Che-chiang jih-pao (Chekiang Daily), 1959.11.9. in CCD, No. 14, p. 29.

The provincial population data (column 1) have been derived from J. S. Aird 1967, page 370, 1957 year-end data, and a 2 percent growth rate assumed. The national population data are for my forthcoming dessertation. All provincial data are from articles written in commemoration of the 10th anniversary of the founding of the PRC. In the Chinese text the data referred to year-end 1958, except for Chekiang which is referred to as "at present."

280 Data on women workers in Tientsin, Hsin Wan Pao (New Evening Paper), 1959.11.14. in-Weekly Report, No. 22, 1960.4.25.

281 See population tables in my forthcoming dissertation.

282 See footnote 257.

In table 12 (above) the data all refer to provincial or national levels, and are not limited to the agricultural population. The articles, however, stressed that the establishment of child care stations was in the main carried out in rural areas to help women who worked in agriculture (sources see under table 12). In table 12 the percentages of all preschool age children are given. If only the children with working mothers were counted that would mean an increase of about 5 percent (in column IV, table 12) for the year 1958. The national data given for all of China are consistent with the provincial data. Compared to earlier data from 1956 when 5 to 10 percent of the children of working mothers were admitted to child care stations a substantial increase occurred in 1958. From roughly one-third to two-thirds of the children with working mothers received child care.

Child care stations with one person in charge were obviously common in 1958, considering the low average number of children per station (see table 12, column VI). That would have meant most likely an elderly women looking after some of her neighbors' children in her own courtyard.

In 1959 smaller figures were given, indicating a decrease in the number of children in kindergartens. In an excerpt of Ts'ai Ch'ang's speech in the People's Daily 283 a reference was made to several million canteens, nurseries, and kindergartens, while the same passage of the same speech reprinted in the official organ of the ACWF, Chung-kuo fu-nü (Women of China), said that several hundred thousand pre-school-age children were cared for by child care organizations.284

Recession in the 1960's

In 1961 a rule was recommended for assigning women to farmwork taking into account their number of children. Mothers with children under the care of their families had to work 20 to 22 days per month, while mothers who had to take care of their children by themselves and had a heavy household burden had to work 15 days per month.255 The alternative of collective child care was not mentioned.286 Child care stations were seen mainly as a busy season phenomenon:

If mothers need others to care for their children during the busy seasons in agriculture and when all (labor) power has to be united to accomplish a heavy work burden in a short time then temporary child care stations should be set up to care for the children during this time.287

In exhorting more women to take part in agricultural production in 1965 women first had to be helped to solve what was considered "their practical problems."

233 "Hold high the banner of Mao Tse-tung thought, further mobilize women to realize the struggle for a continuing Leap Forware in 1960." Excerpts from a speech by Ts'ai Ch'ang, Chairman ACWF. on its second meeting third executive committee. JMJP, 1960.2.25.

284 "Sisters in the whole country! Quickly again whip up and carry through the continued Great Leap Forward of 1960!" Report by Chairperson Ts'ai Ch'ang of the ACDWF, to the second meeting of the third executive committee of ACDWF, 1960.2.22., CKFN, No. 5, 1960.3.1., p. 2 ff. A translation of the CKFN article above was made in JPRS 5043 "Women's movement in Communist China," mistranslating the above passage into "in rural areas about 70 percent of the children of suitable age are admitted to the series" where the Chinese text said preschool age children and several hundred thousand.

235 "The Ch'ing hsi production brigade carries through equal pay for equal work for men and women," CKFN, No. 11, 1961, p. 4.

286 Ibid.

257 Propaganda Department Women's Federation of Peking, "Materials for teaching duties in working with rural women," CKFN, No. 2, 1962.2.1.